The article is a bit dense, but what it's announcing is effectively golang's `defer` (with extra braces) or a limited form of C++'s RAII (with much less boilerplate).
Both RAII and `defer` have proven to be highly useful in real-world code. This seems like a good addition to the C language that I hope makes it into the standard.
Probably closer to defer in Zig than in Go, I would imagine. Defer in Go executes when the function deferred within returns; defer in Zig executes when the scope deferred within exits.
This is the crucial difference. Scope-based is much better.
By the way, GCC and Clang have attribute((cleanup)) (which is the same, scope-based clean-up) and have done for over a decade, and this is widely used in open source projects now.
I wonder what the thought process of the Go designers was when coming up with that approach. Function scope is rarely what a user needs, has major pitfalls, and is more complex to implement in the compiler (need to append to an unbounded list).
> I wonder what the thought process of the Go designers was when coming up with that approach.
Sometimes we need block scoped cleanup, other times we need the function one.
You can turn the function scoped defer into a block scoped defer in a function literal.
AFAICT, you cannot turn a block scoped defer into the function one.
So I think the choice was obvious - go with the more general(izable) variant. Picking the alternative, which can do only half of the job, would be IMO a mistake.
I hate even more that you can call defer in a loop, and it will appear to work, as long as the loop has relatively few iterations, and is just silently massively wasteful.
I know. Or in some cases, you can put the loop body in a dedicated function. There are workarounds. It's just bad that the wrong way a) is the most obvious way, and b) is silently wrong in such a way that it appears to work during testing, often becoming a problem only when confronted with real-world data, and often surfacing only as being a hard-to-debug performance or resource usage issue.
In a tight loop you'd want your cleanup to happen after the fact. And in, say, an IO loop, you're going to want concurrency anyway, which necessarily introduces new function scope.
> In a tight loop you'd want your cleanup to happen after the fact.
Why? Doing 10 000 iterations where each iteration allocates and operates a resource, then later going through and freeing those 10 000 resources, is not better than doing 10 000 iterations where each iteration allocates a resource, operates on it, and frees it. You just waste more resources.
> And in, say, an IO loop, you're going to want concurrency anyway
This is not necessarily true; not everything is so performance sensitive that you want to add the significant complexity of doing it async. Often, a simple loop where each iteration opens a file, reads stuff from it, and closes it, is more than good enough.
Say you have a folder with a bunch of data files you need to work on. Maybe the work you do per file is significant and easily parallelizable; you would probably want to iterate through the files one by one and process each file with all your cores. There are even situations where the output of working on one file becomes part of the input for work on the next file.
Anyway, I will concede that all of this is sort of an edge case which doesn't come up that often. But why should the obvious way be the wrong way? Block-scoped defer is the most obvious solution since variable lifetimes are naturally block-scoped; what's the argument for why it ought to be different?
It doesn't just have to be files, FWIW. I once worked in a Go project which used SDL through CGO for drawing. "Widgets" were basically functions which would allocate an SDL surface, draw to it using Cairo, and return it to Go code. That SDL surface would be wrapped in a Go wrapper with a Destroy method which would call SDL_DestroySurface.
And to draw a surface to the screen, you need to create an SDL texture from it. If that's all you want to do, you can then destroy the SDL surface.
So you could imagine code like this:
strings := []string{"Lorem", "ipsum", "dolor", "sit", "amet"}
stringTextures := []SDLTexture{}
for _, s := range strings {
surface := RenderTextToSurface(s)
defer surface.Destroy()
stringTextures = append(stringTextures, surface.CreateTexture())
}
Oops, you're now using way more memory than you need!
Why would you allocate/destroy memory in each iteration when you can reuse it to much greater effect? Aside from bad API design, but a language isn't there to paper over bad design decisions. A good language makes bad design decisions painful.
The surfaces are all of different size, so the code would have to be more complex, resizing some underlying buffer on demand. You'd have to split up the text rendering into an API to measure the text and an API to render the text, so that you could resize the buffer. So you'd introduce quite a lot of extra complexity.
And what would be the benefit? You save up to one malloc and free per string you want to render, but text rendering is so demanding it completely drowns out the cost of one allocation.
Why does the buffer need to be resized? Your malloc version allocates a fixed amount of memory on each iteration. You can allocate the same amount of memory ahead of time.
If you were dynamically changing the malloc allocation size on each iteration then you have a case for a growable buffer to do the same, but in that case you would already have all the complexity of which you speak as required to support a dynamically-sized malloc.
> The example allocates an SDL_Surface large enough to fit the text string each iteration.
Impossible without knowing how much to allocate, which you indicate would require adding a bunch of complexity. However, I am willing to chalk that up to being a typo. Given that we are now calculating how much to allocate on each iteration, where is the meaningful complexity? I see almost no difference between:
>> The example allocates an SDL_Surface large enough to fit the text string each iteration.
> Impossible without knowing how much to allocate
But we do know how much to allocate? The implementation of this example's RenderTextToSurface function would use SDL functions to measure the text, then allocate an SDL_Surface large enough, then draw to that surface.
> I see almost no difference between: (code example) and (code example)
What? Those two code examples aren't even in the same language as the code I showed.
The difference would be between the example I gave earlier:
stringTextures := []SDLTexture{}
for _, str := range strings {
surface := RenderTextToSurface(str)
defer surface.Destroy()
stringTextures = append(stringTextures, surface.CreateTexture())
}
> Remember, I'm talking about the API to a Go wrapper around SDL.
We were talking about using malloc/free vs. a resizable buffer. Happy to progress the discussion towards a Go API, however. That, obviously, is going to look something more like this:
renderer := SDLRenderer()
defer renderer.Destroy()
for _, str := range strings {
surface := renderer.RenderTextToSurface(str)
textures = append(textures, renderer.CreateTextureFromSurface(surface))
}
I have no idea why you think it would look like that monstrosity you came up with.
> No. We were talking about using malloc/free vs. a resizable buffer.
No. This is a conversation about Go. My example[1], that you responded to, was an example taken from a real-world project I've worked on which uses Go wrappers around SDL functions to render text. Nowhere did I mention malloc or free, you brought those up.
The code you gave this time is literally my first example (again, [1]), which allocates a new surface every time, except that you forgot to destroy the surface. Good job.
I invite you to read the code again. You missed a few things. Notably it uses a shared memory buffer, as discussed, and does free it upon defer being executed. It is essentially equivalent to the second C snippet above, while your original example is essentially equivalent to the first C snippet.
Wait, so your wrapper around SDL_Renderer now also inexplicably contains a scratch buffer? I guess that explains why you put RenderTextToSurface on your SDL_Renderer wrapper, but ... that's some really weird API design. Why does the SDL_Renderer wrapper know how to use SDL_TTF or PangoCairo to draw text to a surface? Why does SDL_Renderer then own the resulting surface?
To anyone used to SDL, your proposed API is extremely surprising.
It would've made your point clearer if you'd explained this coupling between SDL_Renderer and text rendering in your original post.
But yes, I concede that if there was any reason to do so, putting a scratch surface into your SDL_Renderer that you can auto-resize and render text to would be a solution that makes for slightly nicer API design. Your SDL_Renderer now needs to be passed around as a parameter to stuff which only ought to need to concern itself with CPU rendering, and you now need to deal with mutexes if you have multiple goroutines rendering text, but those would've been alright trade-offs -- again, if there was a reason to do so. But there's not; the allocation is fast and the text rendering is slow.
You're right to call out that the SDLRenderer name was a poor choice. SDL is an implementation detail that should be completely hidden from the user of the API. That it may or may not use SDL under the hood is irrelevant to the user of the API. If the user wanted to use SDL, they would do so directly. The whole point of this kind of abstraction, of course, is to decouple of the dependence on something like SDL. Point taken.
Aside from my failure in dealing with the hardest problem in computer science, how would you improve the intent of the API? It is clearly improved over the original version, but we would do well to iterate towards something even better.
Some hypothetical example numbers: if software-rendering text takes 0.1 milliseconds, and I have a handful of text strings to render, I may not care that rendering the strings takes a millisecond or two.
But that 0.1 millisecond to render a string is an eternity compared to the time it takes to allocate some memory, which might be on the order of single digit microseconds. Saving a microsecond from a process which takes 0.1 milliseconds isn't noticeable.
You might not care today, but the next guy tasked to render many millions of strings tomorrow does care. If he has to build yet another API that ultimately does the same thing and is almost exactly the same, something has gone wrong. A good API is accommodating to users of all kinds.
It might be preferable to create a font atlas and just allocate printable ASCII characters as a spritesheet (a single SDL_Texture* reference and an array of rects.) Rather than allocating a texture for each string, you just iterate the string and blit the characters, no new allocations necessary.
If you need something more complex, with kerning and the like, the current version of SDL_TTF can create font atlases for various backends.
Completely depends on context. If you're rendering dynamically changing text, you should do as you say. If you have some completely static text, there's really nothing wrong with doing the text rendering once using PangoCairo and then re-using that texture. Doing it with PangoCairo also lets you do other fancy things like drop shadows easier.
Opening a file is fairly fast (at least if you're on Linux; Windows not so much). Synchronous code is simpler than concurrent code. If processing files sequentially is fast enough, for what reason would you want to open them concurrently?
For concurrent processing you'd probably do something like splitting the file names into several batches and process those batches sequentially in each goroutine, so it's very much possible that you'd have an exact same loop for the concurrent scenario.
P.S. If you have enough files you don't want to try to open them all at once — Go will start creating more and more threads to handle the "blocked" syscalls (open(2) in this case), and you can run out of 10,000 threads too
You'd probably have to be doing something pretty unusual to not use a worker queue. Your "P.S." point being a perfect case in point as to why.
If you have a legitimate reason for doing something unusual, it is fine to have to use the tools unusually. It serves as a useful reminder that you are purposefully doing something unusual rather than simply making a bad design choice. A good language makes bad design decisions painful.
You have now transformed the easy problem of "iterate through some files" into the much more complex problem of either finding a work queue library or writing your own work queue library; and you're baking in the assumption that the only reasonable way to use that work queue is to make each work item exactly one file.
What you propose is not a bad solution, but don't come here and pretend it's the only reasonable solution for almost all situations. It's not. Sometimes, you want each work item to be a list of files, if processing one file is fast enough for synchronisation overhead to be significant. Often, you don't have to care so much about the wall clock time your loop takes and it's fast enough to just do sequentially. Sometimes, you're implementing a non-important background task where you intentionally want to only bother one core. None of these are super unusual situations.
It is telling that you keep insisting that any solution that's not a one-file-per-work-item work queue is super strange and should be punished by the language's design, when you haven't even responded to my core argument that: sometimes sequential is fast enough.
Your comment was in reply to nasretdinov, but its fundamental logic ignores what I've been telling you this whole time. You're pretending that the only solution to iterating through files is a work queue and that any solution that does a synchronous open/close for each iteration is fundamentally bad. I have told you why it isn't: you don't always need the performance.
for _, filename := range files {
queue <- func() {
f, _ := os.Open(filename)
defer f.Close()
}
}
or more realistically,
var group errgroup.Group
group.SetLimit(10)
for _, filename := range files {
group.Go(func() error {
f, err := os.Open(filename)
if err != nil {
return fmt.Errorf("failed to open file %s: %w", filename, err)
}
defer f.Close()
// ...
return nil
})
}
if err := group.Wait(); err != nil {
return fmt.Errorf("failed to process files: %w", err)
}
Perhaps you can elaborate?
I did read your code, but it is not clear where the worker queue is. It looks like it ranges over (presumably) a channel of filenames, which is not meaningfully different than ranging over a slice of filenames. That is the original, non-concurrent solution, more or less.
// Spawn workers
for _ := range 10 {
go func() {
for path := range workQueue {
fp, err := os.Open(path)
if err != nil { ... }
defer fp.Close()
// do work
}
}()
}
// Iterate files and give work to workers
for _, path := range paths {
workQueue <- path
}
Maybe, but why would one introduce coupling between the worker queue and the work being done? That is a poor design.
Now we know why it was painful. What is interesting here is that the pain wasn't noticed as a signal that the design was off. I wonder why?
We should dive into that topic. I suspect at the heart of it lies why there is so much general dislike for Go as a language, with it being far less forgiving to poor choices than a lot of other popular languages.
I think your issue is that you're an architecture astronaut. This is not a compliment. It's okay for things to just do the thing they're meant to do and not be super duper generic and extensible.
It is perfectly okay inside of a package. Once you introduce exports, like as seen in another thread, then there is good reason to think more carefully about how users are going to use it. Pulling the rug out from underneath them later when you discover your original API was ill-conceived is not good citizenry.
But one does still have to be mindful if they want to write software productively. Using a "super duper generic and extensible" solution means that things like error propagation is already solved for you. Your code, on the other hand, is going to quickly become a mess once you start adding all that extra machinery. It didn't go unnoticed that you conveniently left that out.
Maybe that no longer matters with LLMs, when you don't even have to look the code and producing it is effectively free, but LLMs these days also understand how defer works so then this whole thing becomes moot.
Some system calls like select() will not work if there are more than 1024 FDs open (https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/select.2.html), so it probably (?) makes sense to default to it. Although I don't really think that in 2k26 it makes sense to have such a low limit on desktops, that is true.
defer was invented by Andrei Alexandrescu who spelled it scope(exit)/scope(failure) [Zig's errdefer]/scope(success) ... it first appeared in D 2.0 after Andrei convinced Walter Bright to add it.
Both defer and RAII have proven to be useful, but RAII has also proven to be quite harmful in cases, in the limit introducing a lot of hidden control flow.
I think that defer is actually limited in ways that are good - I don't see it introducing surprising control flow in the same way.
Defer is also hidden control flow. At the end of every block, you need to read backwards in the entire block to see if a defer was declared in order to determine where control will jump to. Please stop pretending that defer isn't hidden control flow.
> RAII has also proven to be quite harmful in cases
The downsides of defer are much worse than the "downsides" of RAII. Defer is manual and error-prone, something that you have to remember to do every single time.
Defer is a restricted form of COMEFROM with automatic labels. You COMEFROM the end of the next `defer` block in the same scope, or from the end of the function (before `return`) if there is no more `defer`. The order of execution of defer-blocks is backwards (bottom-to-top) rather than the typical top-to-bottom.
`defer` is obviously not implemented in this way, it will re-order the code to flow top-to-bottom and have fewer branches, but the control flow is effectively the same thing.
In theory a compiler could implement `comefrom` by re-ordering the basic blocks like `defer` does, so that the actual runtime evaluation of code is still top-to-bottom.
But of course what you call "surprising" and "hidden" is also RAII's strength.
It allows library authors to take responsibility for cleaning up resources in exactly one place rather than forcing library users to insert a defer call in every single place the library is used.
This certainly isn't RAII—the term is quite literal, Resource Acquisition Is Initialization, rather than calling code as the scope exits. This is the latter of course, not the former.
People often say that "RAII" is kind of a misnomer; the real power of RAII is deterministic destruction. And I agree with this sentiment; resource acquisition is the boring part of RAII, deterministic destruction is where the utility comes from. In that sense, there's a clear analogy between RAII and defer.
But yeah, RAII can only provide deterministic destruction because resource acquisition is initialization. As long as resource acquisition is decoupled from initialization, you need to manually track whether a variable has been initialized or not, and make sure to only call a destruction function (be that by putting free() before a return or through 'defer my_type_destroy(my_var)') in the paths where you know that your variable is initialized.
So "A limited form of RAII" is probably the wrong way to think about it.
Which removes half the value of RAII as I see it—needing when and to know how to unacquire the resource is half the battle, a burden that using RAII removes.
Of course, calling code as the scope exits is still useful. It just seems silly to call it any form of RAII.
In my opinion, it's the initialization part of RAII which is really powerful and still missing from most other languages. When implemented properly, RAII completely eliminates a whole class of bugs related to uninitialized or partially initialized objects: if all initialization happens during construction, then you either have a fully initialized correct object, or you exit via an exception, no third state. Additionaly, tying resources to constructors makes the correct order of freeing these resources automatic. If you consume all your dependencies during construction, then destructors just walk the dependency graph in the correct order without you even thinking about it. Agreed, that writing your code like this requires some getting used to and isn't even always possible, but it's still a very powerful idea that goes beyond simple automatic destruction
This sounds like a nice theoretical benefit to a theoretical RAII system (or even a practical benefit to RAII in Rust), but in C++, I encounter no end of bugs related to uninitialized or partially initialized objects. All primitive types have a no-op constructor, so objects of those types are uninitialized by default. Structs containing members of primitive types can be in partially initialized states where some members are uninitialized because of a missing '= 0'.
It's not uncommon that I encounter a bug when running some code on new hardware or a new architecture or a new compiler for the first time because the code assumed that an integer member of a class would be 0 right after initialization and that happened to be true before. ASan helps here, but it's not trivial to run in all embedded contexts (and it's completely out of the question on MCUs).
It's been some since I have used C++, but as far as I understand it RAII is primarily about controlling leaks, rather than strictly defined state (even if the name would imply that) once the constructor runs. The core idea is that if resource allocations are condensed in constructors then destructors gracefully handle deallocations, and as long you don't forget about the object (_ptr helpers help here) the destructors get called and you don't leak resources. You may end up with a bunch of FooManager wrapper classes if acquisition can fail (throw), though. So yes, I agree with your GP comment, it's the deterministic destruction that is the power of RAII.
On the other hand, what you refer to in this* comment and what parent hints at with "When implemented properly" is what I have heard referred to (non English) type totality. Think AbstractFoo vs ConcreteFoo, but used not only for abstracting state and behavior in class hierarchy, but rather to ensure that objects are total. Imagine, dunno, database connection. You create some AbstractDBConnection (bad name), which holds some config data, then the open() method returns OpenDBCOnnection() object. In this case Abstract does not even need to call close() and the total object can safely call close() in the destructor. Maybe not the best example. This avoids resources that are in an undefined state.
And the consequence is that, at least in C++, we don't see the benefit you describe of "objects can never be in an uninitialized or partially-initialized state".
Anyway, I think this could be fixed, if we wanted to. C just describes the objects as being uninitialized and has a bunch of UB around uninitialized objects. Nothing in C says that an implementation can't make every uninitialized object 0. As such, it would not harm C interoperability if C++ just declared that all variable declarations initialize variables to their zero value unless the declaration initializes it to something else.
It's possible to fix this in application code with a Primitive<T> or NoDefault<T> wrapper that acts like a T, except doesn't have a default constructor. Use Primitive<int> wherever you'd use int that it matters (e.g. struct fields), and leaving it uninitialized will be a compiler error.
Can you share some sources that give a more complete overview of it?
I got out my 4e Stroustrup book and checked the index, RAII only comes up when discussing resource management.
Interestingly, the verbatim introduction to RAII given is:
> ... RAII allows us to eliminate "naked new operations," that is, to avoid allocations in general code and keep them buried inside the implementation of well-behaved abstractions. Similarly "naked delete" operations should be avoided. Avoiding naked new and naked delete makes code far less error-prone and far easier to keep free of resource leaks
From the embedded standpoint, and after working with Zig a bit, I'm not convinced about that last line. Hiding heap allocations seems like it make it harder to avoid resource leaks!
> Hiding heap allocations seems like it make it harder to avoid resource leaks!
Because types come in constructor / destructor pairs. When creating variables, you're forced to invoke a constructor, and when an the object's lifetime ends, the compiler will insert a destructor call for you. If you allocate on construction and de-allocate on destruction, it'll be very hard for the leak to happen because you can't forget to call the destructor
Though I do wonder what the chances are that the C subset of C++ will ever add this feature. I use my own homespun "scope exit" which runs a lambda in a destructor quite a bit, but every time I use it I wish I could just "defer" instead.
C++ implementations of defer are either really ugly thanks to using lambdas and explicitly named variables which only exist to have scoped object, or they depend on macros which need to have either a long manually namespaced name or you risk stepping on the toes of a library. I had to rename my defer macro from DEFER to MYPOROGRAM_DEFER in a project due to a macro collision.
C++ would be a nicer language with native defer. Working directly with C APIs (which is one of the main reasons to use C++ over Rust or Zig these days) would greatly benefit from it.
Because they are all the consequence of holding it wrong, avoiding RAII solutions.
Working with native C APIs in C++ is akin to using unsafe in Rust, C#, Swift..., it should be wrapped in type safe functions or classes/structs, never used directly outside implementation code.
If folks actually followed this more often, there would be so much less CVE reports in C++ code caused by calling into C.
> Because they are all the consequence of holding it wrong, avoiding RAII solutions.
The reason why C++ is as popular as it is is in large part due to how easy it is to upgrade an existing C codebase in-place. Doing a complete RAII rewrite is at best a long term objective, if not often completely out of the question.
Acknowledging this reality means giving affordances like `defer` that allow upgrading C codebases and C++ code written in a C style easier without having to rewrite the universe. Because if you're asking me to rewrite code in a C++ style all in one go, I might not pick C++.
EDIT: It also occurs to me that destructors also have limitations. They can't throw, which means that if you encounter an issue in a dtor you often have to ignore it and hope it wasn't important.
I ran into this particular annoyance when I was writing my own stream abstractions - I had to hope that closing the stream in the dtor didn't run into trouble.
You can use a function try block on the destructor, additionally thanks to C++ metaprogramming capabilities, many of these handler classes can be written only once and reused across multiple scenarios.
Yes, unfortunely that compatibility is also the Achilles hill of C++, so many C++ libraries that are plain old C libraries with extern "C { .... } added in when using a C++ compiler, and also why so many CVEs keep happening in C++ code.
If I'm gonna write RAII wrappers around every tiny little thing that I happen to need to call once... I might as well just use Rust and make the wrappers do FFI.
If I'm constructing a particular C object once in my entire code base, calling a couple functions on it, then freeing it, I'm not much more likely to get it right in the RAII wrapper than in the one place in my code base I do it manually. At least if I have tools like defer to help me.
Do you mean why I care that I have to call the free function at every exit point of the scope? That's easy: because it's error prone. Defer is much less error prone.
Not to mention that the `scope_success` and `scope_failure` variants have to use `std::uncaught_exceptions()`, which is hostile to codegen and also has other problems, especially in coroutines. C++ could get exception-aware variants of language defer.
While not automated, you can make use of function-try-blocks, e.g.:
struct Example {
Example() = default;
~Example()
try {
// elease resources for this instance
} catch (...) {
// take care of what went wrong in the whole destructor call chain
}
};
What I’m thinking of is that the C++ exception runtime would attach exceptions from destructors to any in-flight exception, forming an exception tree, instead of calling std::terminate. (And also provide an API to access that tree.) C++ already has to handle a potentially unlimited amount of simultaneous in-flight exceptions (nested destructor calls), so from a resource perspective having such a tree isn’t a completely new quality. In case of resource exhaustion, the latest exception to be attached can be replaced by a statically allocated resources_exhausted exception. Callbacks like the old std::unexpected could be added to customize the behavior.
The mechanism in Java I was alluding to is really the Throwable::addSuppressed method; it isn’t tied to the use of a try-block. Since Java doesn’t have destructors, it’s just that the try-with-resources statement is the canonical example of taking advantage of that mechanism.
Various macro tricks have existed for a long time but nobody has been able to wrap the return statement yet. The lack of RAII-style automatic cleanups was one of the root causes for the legendary goto fail;[1] bug.
To be fair, there were multiple wrongs in that piece of code: avoiding typing with the forward goto cleanup pattern; not using braces; not using autoformatting that would have popped out that second goto statement; ignoring compiler warnings and IDE coloring of dead code or not having those warnings enabled in the first place.
C is hard enough as is to get right and every tool and development pattern that helps avoid common pitfalls is welcome.
The forward goto cleanup pattern is not something "wrong" that was done to "avoid typing". Goto cleanup is the only reasonable way I know to semi-reliably clean up resources in C, and is widely used among most of the large C code bases out there. It's the main way resource cleanup is done in Linux.
By putting all the cleanup code at the end of the function after a cleanup label, you have reduced the complexity of resource management: you have one place where the resource is acquired, and one place where the resource is freed. This is actually manageable. Before you return, you check every resource you might have acquired, and if your handle (pointer, file descriptor, PID, whatever) is not in its null state (null pointer, -1, whatever), you call the free function.
By comparison, if you try to put the correct cleanup functions at every exit point, the problem explodes in complexity. Whereas correctly adding a new resource using the 'goto cleanup' pattern requires adding a single 'if (my_resource is not its null value) { cleanup(my_resource) }' at the end of the function, correctly adding a new resource using the 'cleanup at every exit point' pattern requires going through every single exit point in the function, considering whether or not the resource will be acquired at that time, and if it is, adding the cleanup code. Adding a new exit point similarly requires going through all resources used by the function and determining which ones need to be cleaned up.
C is hard enough as it is to get right when you only need to remember to clean up resources in one place. It gets infinitely harder when you need to match up cleanup code with returns.
In theory, for straight-line code only, the If Statement Ladder of Doom is an alternative:
int ret;
FILE *fp;
if ((fp = fopen("hello.txt", "w")) == NULL) {
perror("fopen");
ret = -1;
} else {
const char message[] = "hello world\n";
if (fwrite(message, 1, sizeof message - 1, fp) != sizeof message - 1) {
perror("fwrite");
ret = -1;
} else {
ret = 0;
}
/* fallible cleanup is unpleasant: */
if (fclose(fp) < 0) {
perror("fclose");
ret = -1;
}
}
return ret;
It is in particular universal in Microsoft documentation (but notably not actual Microsoft code; e.g. https://github.com/dotnet/runtime has plenty of cleanup gotos).
In practice, well, the “of doom” part applies: two fallible functions on the main path is (I think) about as many as you can use it for and still have the code look reasonable. A well-known unreasonable example is the official usage sample for IFileDialog: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/shell/common....
I don't see this. The problem was a duplicate "goto fail" statement where the second one caused an incorrect return value to be returned. A duplicate defer statement could directly cause a double free. A duplicate "return err;" statement would have the same problem as the "goto fail" code. Potentially, a defer based solution could eliminate the variable for the return code, but this is not the only way to address this problem.
This has the exact same bug: the function exits with a successful return code as long as the SHA hash update succeeds, skipping further certificate validity checks. The fact that resource cleanup has been relegated to defer so that 'goto fail;' can be replaced with 'return err;' fixes nothing.
I don't think so. The value is set in the assignment in the if statement even for the success path. With and without defer you nowadays get only a warning due to the misleading indentation: https://godbolt.org/z/3G4jzrTTr (updated)
No it wouldn't. 'err' is declared and initialized at the start of the function. Even if it wasn't initialized at the start, it would've been initialized by some earlier fallible function call which is also written as 'if ((err = something()) != 0)'
It’s pedantic, but in the malloc example, I’d put the defer immediately after the assignment. This makes it very obvious that the defer/free goes along with the allocation.
It would run regardless of if malloc succeeded or failed, but calling free on a NULL pointer is safe (defined to no-op in the C-spec).
I love RAII. C++ and Rust are my favourite languages for a lot of things thanks to RAII.
RAII is not the right solution for C. I wouldn't want C to grow constructors and destructors. So far, C only runs the code you ask it to; turning variable declaration into a hidden magic constructor call would, IMO, fly in the face of why people may choose C in the first place.
defer is literally just an explicit RAII in this example. That is, it's just unnecessary boiler plate to wrap the newResource handle into a struct in this context.
In addition, RAII has it's own complexities that need to be dealt with now, i.e. move semantics, which obviously C does not have nor will it likely ever.
> RAII has it's own complexities that need to be dealt with now, i.e. move semantics, which obviously C does not have nor will it likely ever.
In the example above, the question of "do I put defer before or after the `if err != nil` check" is deferred to the programmer. RAII forces you to handle the complexity, defer lets you shoot yourself in the foot.
It seems less pedantic and more unnecessarily dangerous due to its non uniformity: in the general case the resource won’t exist on error, and breaking the pattern for malloc adds inconsistency without any actual value gain.
Free works with NULL, but not all cleanup functions do. Instead of deciding whether to defer before or after the null check on a case-by-case basis based on whether the cleanup function handles NULL gracefully, I would just always do the defer after the null check regardless of which pair of allocation/cleanup functions I use.
It's one of the most commonly adopted feature among C successor languages (D, Zig, Odin, C3, Hare, Jai); given how opinionated some of them are on these topics, I think it's safe to say it's generally well regarded in PL communities.
What I always hated about defer is that you can simply forget or place it in the wrong position. Destructors or linear types (must-use-once types) are a much better solution.
It breaks the idea that statements get executed in the order they appear in the source code, but it ‘only’ moves and sometimes deduplicates (in functions with multiple exit points) statements, it doesn’t hide them.
Of course, that idea already isn’t correct in many languages; function arguments are evaluated before a function is called, operator precedence often breaks it, etc, but this moves entire statements, potentially by many lines.
I feel like C people, out of anyone, should respect the code gen wins of defer. Why would you rely on runtime conditional branches for everything you want cleaned up, when you can statically determine what cleanup functions need to be called?
In any case, the biggest advantage IMO is that resource acquisition and cleanup are next to each other. My brain understands the code better when I see "this is how the resource is acquired, this is how the resource will be freed later" next to each other, than when it sees "this is how this resource is acquired" on its own or "this is how the resource is freed" on its own. When writing, I can write the acquisition and the free at the same time in the same place, making me very unlikely to forget to free something.
Defer might be better than nothing, but it's still a poor solution. An obvious example of a better, structural solution is C#'s `using` blocks.
using (var resource = acquire()) {
} // implicit resource.Dispose();
While we don't have the same simplicity in C because we don't use this "disposable" pattern, we could still perhaps learn something from syntax and use a secondary block to have scoped defers. Something like:
That is a different approach, but I don't think you've demonstrated why it's better. Seems like that approach forces you to introduce a new scope for every resource, which might otherwise be unnecessary:
using (var resource1 = acquire() {
using (var resource2 = acquire()) {
using (var resource3 = acquire()) {
// use resources here..
}
}
}
Compared to:
var resource1 = acquire();
defer { release(resource1); }
var resource2 = acquire();
defer { release(resource2); }
var resource3 = acquire();
defer { release(resource3); }
// use resources here
Of course if you want the extra scopes (for whatever reason), you can still do that with defer, you're just not forced to.
While the macro version doesn't permit this, if it were built-in syntax (as in C#) we can write something like:
using (auto res1 = acquire1(); free(res1))
using (auto res2 = acquire2(); free(res2))
using (auto res3 = acquire3(); free(res3))
{
// use resources here
}
// free(res3); free(res2); free(res1); called in that order.
The argument for this approach is it is structural. `defer` statements are not structural control flow: They're `goto` or `comefrom` in disguise.
---
Even if we didn't want to introduce new scope, we could have something like F#'s `use`[1], which makes the resource available until the end of the scope it was introduced.
use auto res1 = acquire1() defer { free(res1); };
use auto res2 = acquire2() defer { free(res2); };
use auto res3 = acquire3() defer { free(res3); };
// use resources here
In either case (using or use-defer), the acquisition and release are coupled together in the code. With `defer` statements they're scattered as separate statements. The main argument for `defer` is to keep the acquisition and release of resources together in code, but defer statements fail at doing that.
>"this is how the resource is acquired, this is how the resource will be freed later"
Lovely fairy tale. Now can you tell me how you love to scroll back and examine all the defer blocks within a scope when it ends to understand what happens at that point?
I don't typically do that. In 99.999% of cases, 'defer free(something)' was done because it's the correct thing to do at every exit point, so I don't need to think about it at the end of the block.
It allows you to put the deferred logic near the allocation/use site which I noticed was helpful in Go as it becomes muscle memory to do cleanup as you write some new allocation and it is hinted by autocomplete these days.
But it adds a new dimension of control flow, which in a garbage collected language like Go is less worrisome whereas in C this can create new headaches in doing things in the right order. I don't think it will eliminate goto error handling for complex cases.
The advantage is that it automatically adds the cleanup code to all exit paths, so you can not forget it for some. Whether this is really that helpful is unclear to me. When we looked at defer originally for C, Robert Seacord hat a list of examples and how the looked before and after rewriting with defer. At that point I lost interest in this feature, because the new code wasn't generally better in my opinion.
But people know it from other languages, and seem to like it, so I guess it is good to have it also in C.
Confer the recent bug related to goto-error handling in OpenSSH where the "additional" error return value wasn’t caught and allowed a security bypass accepting a failed key.
Cleanup is good. Jumping around with "goto" confused most people in practice. It seems highly likely that most programmers model "defer" differently in their minds.
EDIT:
IIRC it was CVE-2025-26465. Read the code and the patch.
The return value depends on control flow ("obvious", please bear with me):
With "goto" the cleanup-up can jump anywhere. With "defer" the cleanup cannot really jump anywhere. It is easier to mentally stick to simply cleaning up in a common sense way. And taking care of multiple "unrelated" clean-up steps is "handled for you."
(Attacks on this sometimes approach complaints about lack of "common sense".)
1. Goto pattern is very error-prone. It works until it doesn't and you have a memory leak. The way I solved this issue in my code was a macro that takes a function and creates an object that has said function in its destructor.
2. Defer is mostly useful for C++ code that needs to interact with C API because these two are fundamentally different. C API usually exposes functions "create_something" and "destroy_something", while the C++ pattern is to have an object that has "create_something" hidden inside its constructor, and "destroy_something" inside its destructor.
I’m just going to start teaching classes of C programming to university first-year CS students. Would you teach `defer` straight away to manage allocated memory?
My suggestion is no - first have them do it the hard way. This will help them build the skills to do manual memory management where defer is not available.
Once they do learn about defer they will come to appreciate it much more.
Absolutely the wrong take. You can teach CS with just pencil and paper, but that doesn’t advance the technology, it might only benefit academia in a narrow sense. CS students should be actively engineering software in addition to doing science.
No, but also skip malloc/free until late in the year, and when it comes to heap allocation then don't use example code which allocates and frees single structs, instead introduce concepts like arena allocators to bundle many items with the same max lifetime, pool allocators with generation-counted slots and other memory managements strategies.
This only covers one aspect though (pools indexed by 'generation-counted-index-handles' to solve temporal memory safety - e.g. a runtime solution for use-after-free).
No. They need to understand memory failures. Teach them what it looks like when it's wrong. Then show them the tools to make things right. They'll never fully understand those tools if they don't understand the necessity of doing the right thing.
There is a technical specification, so hopefully it will be standard C in the next version. And given that gcc and clang already have implementatians (and gcc has had a way to do it for a long time, although the syntax is quite different).
It is not yet a technical specification, just a draft for one, but this will hopefully change this year, and the defer patch has not been merged into GCC yet. So I guess it will become part of C at some point if experience with it is good, but at this time it is an extension.
We will likely decide in March that it will became an ISO TS. Given the simplicity of the feature and its popularity, I would assume that it will become part of the standard eventually.
If you're teaching them to write an assembler, then it may be worth teaching them C, as a fairly basic language with a straightforward/naive mapping to assembly. But for basically any other context in which you'd be teaching first-year CS students a language, C is not an ideal language to learn as a beginner. Teaching C to first-year CS students just for the heck of it is like teaching medieval alchemy to first-year chemistry students.
Absolutely, it's not their first language. In our curriculum C programming is part of the Operating Systems course and comes after Computer Architecture where they see assembly. So its purpose is to be low level to understand what's under the hood. To learn programming itself they use other languages (currently Java, for better or worse, but I don't have voice on that choice).
At no point in human history has C been the best language for beginners. C was, like Javascript, hacked together in a weekend by someone who wished they could be using a better language. It was burdened with flaws from the outset and considered archaic in its design almost immediately. The best thing that can be said about the design of C is that it's at least a structured programming language, which is damning with faint praise.
The Linux kernel has been using __attribute___((cleanup)) for a little while now. So far, I've only seen/used it in cases where the alternative (one goto label) isn't very bad. Even there it's basically welcome.
But there are lots of cases in the kernel where we have 10+ goto labels for error paths in complex setup functions. I think when this starts making its way into those areas it will really start having an impact on bugs.
Sure, most of those bugs are low impact (it's rare that an attacker can trigger the broken error paths) but still, this is basically free software quality, it would be silly to leave it on the table.
And then there's the ACTUAL motivation: it makes the code look nicer.
In C I just used goto - you put a cleanup section at the bottom of your code and your error handling just jumps to it.
#define RETURN(x) result=x;goto CLEANUP
void myfunc() {
int result=0;
if (commserror()) {
RETURN(0);
}
.....
/* On success */
RETURN(1);
CLEANUP:
if (myStruct) { free(myStruct); }
...
return result
}
The advantage being that you never have to remember which things are to be freed at which particular error state. The style also avoids lots of nesting because it returns early. It's not as nice as having defer but it does help in larger functions.
You're right that it's not needed in my example but sometimes the thing that you're freeing has pointers inside it which themselves have to be freed first and in that case you need the if.
There are several other issues I haven't shown like what happens if you need to free something only when the return code is "FALSE" indicating that something failed.
This is not as nice as defer but up till now it was a comparatively nice way to deal with those functions which were really large and complicated and had many exit points.
If you have something which contains pointers, you should have a destructor function for it, which itself should check if the pointer is not NULL before attempting to free any fields.
We are talking about C. A destructor function in C is a function that gets called when the library gets unloaded. No you shouldn't have a destructor function for it.
Right, but as a programmer you rarely have control over that. And even if you do, you often can't handle out of memory errors gracefully.
Thus, for a typical situation it is reasonable to log the error and bail out, rather than adding extra custom error handling around every single memory allocation, which ends up being code that is never tested.
This looks like a recipe for disaster when you'll free something in the return path that shouldn't be freed because it's part of the function's result, or forget to free something in a success path. Just write
result=x;
goto cleanup;
if you meant
result=x;
goto cleanup;
At least then you'll be able to follow the control flow without remembering what the magic macro does.
In your cleanup method you have to take the same care of parameters that you are putting results into as any other way you can deal with this. All it does is save you from repeating such logic at all the exit points.
I have a personal aversion to defer as a language feature. Some of this is aesthetic. I prefer code to be linear, which is to say that instructions appear in the order that they are evaluated. Further, the presence of defer almost always implies that there are resources that can leak silently.
I also dislike RAII because it often makes it difficult to reason about when destructors are run and also admits accidental leaks just like defer does. Instead what I would want is essentially a linear type system in the compiler that allows one to annotate data structures that require cleanup and errors if any possible branches fail to execute the cleanup. This has the benefit of making cleanup explicit while also guaranteeing that it happens.
If you dislike things happening out of lexical order, I expect must already dislike C because of one of its many notorious footguns, which is that the evaluation order of function arguments is implementation-defined.
About RAII, I think your viewpoint is quite baffling. Destructors are run at one extremely well-defined point in the code: `}`. That's not hard to reason about at all. Especially not compared to often spaghetti-like cleanup tails. If you're lucky, the team does not have a policy against `goto`.
> I have a personal aversion to defer as a language feature.
Indeed, `defer` as a language feature is an anti-pattern.
It does not allow the abstraction of initialization/de-initialization routines and encapsulating their execution within the resources, transferring the responsibility to manually perform the release or de-initialization to the users of the resources - for each use of the resource.
> I also dislike RAII because it often makes it difficult to reason about when destructors are run [..]
RAII is a way to abstract initialization, it says nothing about where a resource is initialized.
When combined with stack allocation, now you have something that gives you precise points of construction/destruction.
The same can be said about heap allocation in some sense, though this tends to be more manual and could also involve some dynamic component (ie, a tracing collector).
> [..] and also admits accidental leaks just like defer does.
RAII is not memory management, it's an initialization discipline.
> [..] what I would want is essentially a linear type system in the compiler that allows one to annotate data structures that require cleanup and errors if any possible branches fail to execute the cleanup. This has the benefit of making cleanup explicit while also guaranteeing that it happens.
Why would you want to replicate the same cleanup procedure for a certain resource throughout the code-base, instead of abstracting it in the resource itself?
Abstraction and explicitness can co-exist. One does not rule out the other.
As others have commented already: if you want to use C++, use C++. I suspect the majority of C programmers neither care nor want stuff like this; I still stay with C89 because I know it will be portable anywhere, and complexities like this are completely at odds with the reason to use C in the first place.
I would say the complexity of implementing defer yourself is a bit annoying for C. However defer itself, as a language feature in a C standard is pretty reasonable. It’s a very straightforward concept and fits well within the scope of C, just as it fit within the scope of zig. As long as it’s the zig defer, not the golang one…
I would not introduce zig’s errdeferr though. That one would need additional semantics changes in C to express errors.
It starts out small. Then before you know the language is total shit. Python is a good example.
I am observing a very distinguishable phenomenon when internet makes very shallow ideas mainstream and ruin many many good things that stood the test of time.
I am not saying this is one of those instances, but what the parent comment makes sense to me. You can see another comment who now wants to go further and want destructors in C. Because of internet, such voices can now reach out to each other, gather and cause a change. But before, such voices would have to go through a lot of sensible heads before they would be able to reach each other. In other words, bad ideas got snuffed early before internet, but now they go mainstream easily.
So you see, it starts out slow, but then more and more stuff gets added which diverges more and more from the point.
I get your point, though in the specific case of defer, looks like we both agree it's really a good move. No more spaghetti of goto err_*; in complex initialization functions.
Actually I am not sure I do. It seems to me that even though `defer` is more explicit than destructors, it still falls under "spooky action at a distance" category.
I don't understand why destructors enter the discussion. This is C, there is no destructors. Are you comparing "adding destructors to C" vs "adding defer to C"?
The former would be bring so much in C that it wouldn't be C anymore.
And if your point is "you should switch to C++ to get destructors", then it seems out of topic. By very definition, if we're talking about language X and your answer is "switch to Y", this is an entirely different subject, of very few interest to people programming in X.
Defer is not spooky action at a distance. It is an explicit statement that gets executed as written. Unlike (for example, a familiar feature which C doesn’t have) operator overloading… which causes code that looks like one thing (adition for example) behave like another (a function call). Defer does exactly what it says on the tin can (“move this line to the end of the scope”), just like goto does exactly what it claims to do.
Macros (in general) are way spookier than a defer statement.
Where it is invisible! What is so hard about this to understand?
>operator overloading..
Yes, but if we go by your argument, you can say it gets executed exactly as it is written. It is just that it is written (ie overloading) somewhere else ie "at distance"...just like a defer block that could be far from the end of the scope that is trigerring it
> `defer` is still in "spooky action at a distance" category
Agree, this is also why I'm a bit weary of it.
What brings me on the "pro" side is that, defer or not defer, there will need to be some kind of cleanup anyway. It's just a matter of where it is declared, and close to the acquisition is arguably better.
The caveat IMHO is that if a codebase is not consistent in its use, it could be worst.
It is, just the existence of goto makes control flow significantly harder to understand. People complain about exceptions in C++ obfuscating control flow, but then they recreate exceptions using goto. The funny thing is that exceptions are just fancy goto, the assembly is almost the same.
The bigger picture of C as a language is not that it's simple, because it's not simple at all. It's inept. It doesn't give developers the tools to write simple code. So easy things become hard, and we sort of jank together solutions that kind of work but usually don't.
I like to compare it to building a shed with power tools versus only a screwdriver. Is a screwdriver simpler than a power saw and all that? Of course. Now think about building a shed. Is it simpler to do with a screwdriver? No. It's much, much more complex. You have to develop complex processes to make that work, and it's not intuitive at all.
C is a language that already makes use of implicit control flow A LOT. I don't see defer being a problem. The irony is that if C just supported these use cases out-of-the-box, it would be simpler and easier. As a concrete example, consider polymorphism in C versus C++. Both languages can do it, but one provides the tools and one doesn't. In C++ I can go to definition, I can concretely define what polymorphism is allowed and what isn't, and the type system gives me the tools to make it safe. In C, none of that is true, so when we do polymorphism with function pointers, it's much harder to understand what's actually going on, or what could be going on.
> I still stay with C89 because I know it will be portable anywhere
With respect, that sounds a bit nuts. It's been 37 years since C89; unless you're targeting computers that still have floppy drives, why give up on so many convenience features? Binary prefixes (0b), #embed, defined-width integer types, more flexibility with placing labels, static_assert for compile-time sanity checks, inline functions, declarations wherever you want, complex number support, designated initializers, countless other things that make code easier to write and to read.
Defer falls in roughly the same category. It doesn't add a whole lot of complexity, it's just a small convenience feature that doesn't add any runtime overhead.
The one huge advantage of C is its ubiquity - you can use it on the latest shiny computer / OS / compiler as well as some obscure embedded platform with a compiler that hasn't been updated since 2002. (That's a rare enough situation to be unimportant, right? /laughs in industrial control gear.)
I'm wary of anything which fragments the language and makes it inaccessible to subsections of its traditional strongholds.
While I'm not a huge fan of the "just use Rust" attitude that crops up so often these days, you could certainly make an argument that if you want modern language features you should be using a more modern language.
(And, for the record, I do still write software - albeit recreationally - for computers that have floppy drives.)
C has its unique advantages that make some of us prefer it to C++ or Rust or other languages. But it also has some issues that can be addressed. IMHO it should evolve, but very slowly. C89 is certainly a much worse language than C99 and I think most of the changes in C23 were good. It is fine to not use them for the next two decades, but I think it is good that most projects moved on from C89 so it is also good that C99 exists even though it took a long time to be adopted. And the same will be true for C23 in the future.
I know this a four day old comment, but based on your post history I think you are probably the best person to ask to be more specific. So, you start out stating “C has its unique advantages”, an assertion I agree with but more for ‘vibes’ than because I can articulate the actual advantages (other than average compilation times). If you see this I would love to hear your list of C’s unique advantages.
- long-term stability: the code I wrote two decades ago is still valuable to me
- short (!) compilation times: this is a huge productivity boost
- the language is very explicit: one can see and understand what is going on
- mature tooling: good compilers and many other tools
- simplicity and elegance: the language is small and not much I need to remember
- portability: supported on many different systems
- performance: C code can be very performance and usually it is without effort
- lean: there is no bloat anywhere
- interoperability: it can interoperate with everything
- no lock-in: it does not lock you into specific frameworks or ways to do things
- maintained using an open and (relatively) fair process: not controlled by specific companies
- what needs to be done, can be done: there are never showstoppers
I should also talk about disadvantages and which I think are real and which are not, or not serious
- no abstractions: i think this is completely wrong, one can build great abstractions in C
- no package manager: IMHO languages should not have packager managers
- difficult to learn: I think this wrong (but see below)
- safety: partially true, but there are ways to deal with this effectively (also the advantages of alternatives are exaggerated)
- out-dated: partially true with respect to the library
- weird syntax: partially true, but hardly serious
- not enough investments in tooling: rarely discussed, but I think this a problem (tools are mature, but still a lot could be improved)
- difficult for beginners: the out-of-the-box experience is bad. one needs to learn how to do stuff in C, find good libraries, etc.
> The one huge advantage of C is its ubiquity - you can use it on the latest shiny computer / OS / compiler as well as some obscure embedded platform with a compiler that hasn't been updated since 2002.
First, for all platforms supported by mainstream compilers, which includes most of embedded systems (from 8 bit to 64 bit), this is not really a concern. You're cross-compiling on your desktop anyway. You'd need to deliberately install and use gcc from the early 1990s, but no one is forcing you. Are you routinely developing software for systems so niche that they aren't even supported by gcc?
But second, the code you write for the desktop is almost never the code you're gonna run in these environments, so why limit yourself across the board? In most embedded environments, especially legacy ones, you won't even have standard libc.
I think a lot of the really old school people don't care, but a lot of the younger people (especially those disillusioned with C++ and not fully enamored with Rust) are in fact quite happy for C to evolve and improve in conservative, simple ways (such as this one).
You're missing out on one of the best-integrated and useful features that have been added to a language as an afterthought (C99 designated initialization). Even many moden languages (e.g. Rust, Zig, C++20) don't get close when it comes to data initialization.
In general it would help if you would spend some text on describing what features of C99 are missing in other languages. Giving some code and assume that the reader will figure it out is not very effective.
As far as I can tell, Rust can do what it is in your example (which different syntax of course) except for this particular way of initializing an array.
To me, that seems like a pretty minor syntax issue to that could be added to Rust if there would be a lot of demand for initializing arrays this way.
E.g. notice how here in Rust each nested struct needs a type annotation, even though the compiler could trivially infer the type. Rust also cannot initialize arrays with random access directly, it needs to go through an expression block. Finally Rust requires `..Default::default()`:
I don't have C++ code around, but compared to C99 it has the following restrictions:
- designators must appear in order (a no-go for any non-trivial struct)
- cannot chain designators (e.g. `.a.b.c = 123`)
- doesn't have the random array access syntax via `[index]`
> ...like a pretty minor syntax issue...
...sure, each language only has a handful minor syntax issues, but these papercuts add up to a lot of syntax noise to sift through when compared to the equivalent C99 code.
In Rust you can do "fn new(field: Field) -> Self { Self { field } )"
This is in my experience the most common case of initializers in Rust.
You don't mention one of the features of the Rust syntax, that you only have to specify the field name when you have a variable with the same name. In my experience, that reduces clutter a lot.
I have to admit, the ..Default::default() syntax is pretty ugly.
In theory Rust could do "let x: Foo = _ { field }" and "Foo { field: _ { bar: 1 } }". That doesn't even change the syntax. Its just whether enough people care.
designated initializers are really great and it's really annoying that C++ has such a crappy version of them. I wish there was a way to tell the compiler that the default value of some fields should not necessarily be 0, though it's ergonomic enough to do that anyway with a macro, since repeated values override.
Not necessarily. In classic C we often build complex state machines to handle errors - especially when there are many things that need to be initialized (malloced) one after another and each might fail. Think the infamous "goto error".
I think defer{} can simplify these flows sometimes, so it can indeed be useful for good old style C.
Defer is a very simple feature where all code is still clearly visible and nothing is called behind your back. I write a lot of C++, and it's a vastly more complex language than "C with defer". Defer is so natural to C that all compilers have relatively broadly non-standard ways of mimicking it (e.g __attribute__((cleanup)).
If you want to write C++, write C++. If you want to write C, but want resource cleanup to be a bit nicer and more standard than __attribute__((cleanup)), use C with defer. The two are not comparable.
Such addition is great. But there is something even better - destructors in C++. Anyone who writes C should consider using C++ instead, where destructors provide a more convenient way for resources freeing.
C++ destructors are implicit, while defer is explicit.
You can just look at the code in front of you to see what defer is doing. With destructors, you need to know what type you have (not always easy to tell), then find its destructor, and all the destructors of its parent classes, to work out what's going to happen.
Sure, if the situation arises frequently, it's nice to be able to design a type that "just works" in C++. But if you need to clean up reliably in just this one place, C++ destructors are a very clunky solution.
Implicitness of destructors isn't a problem, it's an advantage - it makes code shorter. Freeing resources in an explicit way creates too much boilerplate and is bug-prone.
> With destructors, you need to know what type you have (not always easy to tell), then find its destructor, and all the destructors of its parent classes, to work out what's going to happen
Isn't it a code quality issue? It should be clear from class name/description what can happen in its destructor. And if it's not clear, it's not that relevant.
It's absolutely a problem. Classically, you spend most of your time reading and debugging code, not writing it. When there's an issue pertaining to RAII, it is hidden away, potentially requiring looking at many subclasses etc.
Desctructors are only comparable when you build an OnScopeExit class which calls a user-provided lambda in its destructor which then does the cleanup work - so it's more like a workaround to build a defer feature using C++ features.
The classical case of 'one destructor per class' would require to design the entire code base around classes which comes with plenty of downsides.
> Anyone who writes C should consider using C++ instead
Nah thanks, been there, done that. Switching back to C from C++ about 9 years ago was one of my better decisions in life ;)
I think destructors are different, not better. A destructor can’t automatically handle the case where something doesn’t need to be cleaned up on an early return until something else occurs. Also, destructors are a lot of boilerplate for a one-off cleanup.
> A destructor can’t automatically handle the case where something doesn’t need to be cleaned up on an early return
It can. An object with destructor doing clean-up should be created only after such clean-up is needed. In case of a file, for example, a file object should be created at file opening, so that it can close the file in its destructor.
That’s fine when one wants to write a whole class for something. But sometimes a cleanup path is genuinely a one-off, and using something like defer is nice.
> but absolutely no one is going to switch from C to C++ just for dtors
The decision would be easier if the C subset in C++ would be compatible with modern C standards instead of being a non-standard dialect of C stuck in ca. 1995.
For two reasons: First, where C++ features are used, it make the code harder to understand rather than easier. Second, it requires newer and more complex toolchains to build GCC itself. Some people still maintain the last C version of GCC just to keep the bootstrap path open.
This is not my experience at all. In fact, my experience is where C++ is used in GCC it became harder to read. Note that GCC was written in C and then introduced C++ features later so this is not hypothetical.
In general, I think clean C code is easier to read than C++ due to much less complexity and not having language features that make it more difficult to understand by hiding crucial information from the reader (overloading, references, templates, auto, ..).
For the cases where a destructor isn’t readily available, you can write a defer class that runs a lambda passed to its constructor in its destructor, can’t you?
Would be a bit clunky, but that can (¿somewhat?) be hidden in a macro, if desired.
I took some shit in the comments yesterday for suggesting "you can do it with a few lines of standard C++" to another similar thread, but yet again here we are.
Defer takes 10 lines to implement in C++. [1]
You don't have to wait 50 years for a committee to introduce basic convenience features, and you don't have to use non-portable extensions until they do (and in this case the __attribute__((cleanup)) has no equivalent in MSVC), if you use a remotely extensible language.
Why is this a relevant comment? We're talking about C, not C++. If you wanted to suggest using an alternative language, you're probably better off recommending Zig: defer takes 0 lines to implement there, and it's closer to C than what C++ is.
Everyone reading this (you included) knows full well that unlike Zig/Rust/Odin/whatever, C++ has the special property that you can quite literally* write C code in it, AND you can implement whatever quality of life fixes you need with targeted usage of RAII+templates+macros (defer, bounds checked accesses, result types, whatever).
My comment is targeted towards the programmer who is excited about features like this - you can add an extra two characters to your filename and trivially implement those improvements (and more) yourself, without any alterations to your codebase or day to day programming style.
C in C++ is a pretty terrible experience. The differences your asterisk alludes to are actually quite significant in practice:
C++ doesn't let you implicitly cast from void* to other pointer types. This breaks the way you typically heap-allocate variables in C: instead of 'mytype *foo = malloc(sizeof(*foo))', you have to write 'mytype *foo = (mytype *)malloc(sizeof(*foo))'. This adds a non-trivial amount of friction to something you do every handful of lines.
String literals in C++ are 'const char *' instead of 'char *'. While this is more technically correct, it means you have to add casts to 'char *' all over the place. Plenty of C APIs are really not very ergonomic when string literals aren't 'char *'.
And the big one: C++ doesn't have C's struct literals. Lots of C APIs are super ergonomic if you call them like this:
You can't do that in C++. C++ has other features (such as its own, different kind of aggregate initialization with designated initializers, and the ability for temporaries to be treated as const references) which make C++ APIs nice to work with from C++, but C APIs based around the assumption that you'll be using struct literals aren't nice to use from C++.
If you wanna use C, use C. C is a much better C than C++ is.
I'll give you the last bullet you missed, you're also giving up the { [3] = ..., [5] = ... } array initializer syntax.
I like both these syntax-es (syntacies? synticies?) and I hope they make their way to C++, but if we're honestly evaluating features -- take their utility, multiply it by 100 and in my book it's still losing out against either defer or slices/span types.
If you disagree with this, then your calculus for feature utility is completely different than mine. I suspect for most people that's not the case, and most of the time the reason to pick C over C++ is ideological, not because of these 2 pieces of syntax sugar.
"I like it" is a good enough reason to use something, my original comment is to the person who wants to use C but gets excited about features like this - I don't know how many of those people are aware of how trivially most of these things can be accomplished in C++.
I write way more C++ than I write C. I was not comparing C and C++ in terms of which language is better or has more significant features. I was evaluating your suggestion to write C in C++ and get defer that way.
No I think, it the other way around, a fantastic experience; yes, you miss certain features of C, but instead you get massive benefits of C++ - above-mentioned defer, that'd work on any moderrn C++ compiler, constexpr's, a strategic use of STL while prototyping, templates etc.
> C++ doesn't let you implicitly cast from void* to other pointer types
It does, but that is not a good thing IMO anyway.
> Plenty of C APIs are really not very ergonomic when string literals aren't 'char '.
Examples? In my experience most C libraries have const char in their signatures whenever it makes sense.
The article is a bit dense, but what it's announcing is effectively golang's `defer` (with extra braces) or a limited form of C++'s RAII (with much less boilerplate).
Both RAII and `defer` have proven to be highly useful in real-world code. This seems like a good addition to the C language that I hope makes it into the standard.
Probably closer to defer in Zig than in Go, I would imagine. Defer in Go executes when the function deferred within returns; defer in Zig executes when the scope deferred within exits.
This is the crucial difference. Scope-based is much better.
By the way, GCC and Clang have attribute((cleanup)) (which is the same, scope-based clean-up) and have done for over a decade, and this is widely used in open source projects now.
I wonder what the thought process of the Go designers was when coming up with that approach. Function scope is rarely what a user needs, has major pitfalls, and is more complex to implement in the compiler (need to append to an unbounded list).
> I wonder what the thought process of the Go designers was when coming up with that approach.
Sometimes we need block scoped cleanup, other times we need the function one.
You can turn the function scoped defer into a block scoped defer in a function literal.
AFAICT, you cannot turn a block scoped defer into the function one.
So I think the choice was obvious - go with the more general(izable) variant. Picking the alternative, which can do only half of the job, would be IMO a mistake.
> AFAICT, you cannot turn a block scoped defer into the function one.
You kinda-sorta can by creating an array/vector/slice/etc. of thunks (?) in the outer scope and then `defer`ing iterating through/invoking those.
I hate that you can't call defer in a loop.
I hate even more that you can call defer in a loop, and it will appear to work, as long as the loop has relatively few iterations, and is just silently massively wasteful.
The go way of dealing with it is wrapping the block with your defers in a lambda. Looks weird at first, but you can get used to it.
I know. Or in some cases, you can put the loop body in a dedicated function. There are workarounds. It's just bad that the wrong way a) is the most obvious way, and b) is silently wrong in such a way that it appears to work during testing, often becoming a problem only when confronted with real-world data, and often surfacing only as being a hard-to-debug performance or resource usage issue.
What's the use-case for block-level defer?
In a tight loop you'd want your cleanup to happen after the fact. And in, say, an IO loop, you're going to want concurrency anyway, which necessarily introduces new function scope.
> In a tight loop you'd want your cleanup to happen after the fact.
Why? Doing 10 000 iterations where each iteration allocates and operates a resource, then later going through and freeing those 10 000 resources, is not better than doing 10 000 iterations where each iteration allocates a resource, operates on it, and frees it. You just waste more resources.
> And in, say, an IO loop, you're going to want concurrency anyway
This is not necessarily true; not everything is so performance sensitive that you want to add the significant complexity of doing it async. Often, a simple loop where each iteration opens a file, reads stuff from it, and closes it, is more than good enough.
Say you have a folder with a bunch of data files you need to work on. Maybe the work you do per file is significant and easily parallelizable; you would probably want to iterate through the files one by one and process each file with all your cores. There are even situations where the output of working on one file becomes part of the input for work on the next file.
Anyway, I will concede that all of this is sort of an edge case which doesn't come up that often. But why should the obvious way be the wrong way? Block-scoped defer is the most obvious solution since variable lifetimes are naturally block-scoped; what's the argument for why it ought to be different?
Let's say you're opening files upon each loop iteration. If you're not careful you'll run out of open file descriptors before the loop finishes.
It doesn't just have to be files, FWIW. I once worked in a Go project which used SDL through CGO for drawing. "Widgets" were basically functions which would allocate an SDL surface, draw to it using Cairo, and return it to Go code. That SDL surface would be wrapped in a Go wrapper with a Destroy method which would call SDL_DestroySurface.
And to draw a surface to the screen, you need to create an SDL texture from it. If that's all you want to do, you can then destroy the SDL surface.
So you could imagine code like this:
Oops, you're now using way more memory than you need!Why would you allocate/destroy memory in each iteration when you can reuse it to much greater effect? Aside from bad API design, but a language isn't there to paper over bad design decisions. A good language makes bad design decisions painful.
The surfaces are all of different size, so the code would have to be more complex, resizing some underlying buffer on demand. You'd have to split up the text rendering into an API to measure the text and an API to render the text, so that you could resize the buffer. So you'd introduce quite a lot of extra complexity.
And what would be the benefit? You save up to one malloc and free per string you want to render, but text rendering is so demanding it completely drowns out the cost of one allocation.
Why does the buffer need to be resized? Your malloc version allocates a fixed amount of memory on each iteration. You can allocate the same amount of memory ahead of time.
If you were dynamically changing the malloc allocation size on each iteration then you have a case for a growable buffer to do the same, but in that case you would already have all the complexity of which you speak as required to support a dynamically-sized malloc.
The example allocates an SDL_Surface large enough to fit the text string each iteration.
Granted, you could do a pre-pass to find the largest string and allocate enough memory for that once, then use that buffer throughout the loop.
But again, what do you gain from that complexity?
> The example allocates an SDL_Surface large enough to fit the text string each iteration.
Impossible without knowing how much to allocate, which you indicate would require adding a bunch of complexity. However, I am willing to chalk that up to being a typo. Given that we are now calculating how much to allocate on each iteration, where is the meaningful complexity? I see almost no difference between:
and>> The example allocates an SDL_Surface large enough to fit the text string each iteration.
> Impossible without knowing how much to allocate
But we do know how much to allocate? The implementation of this example's RenderTextToSurface function would use SDL functions to measure the text, then allocate an SDL_Surface large enough, then draw to that surface.
> I see almost no difference between: (code example) and (code example)
What? Those two code examples aren't even in the same language as the code I showed.
The difference would be between the example I gave earlier:
and: Remember, I'm talking about the API to a Go wrapper around SDL. How the C code would've looked if you wrote it in C is pretty much irrelevant.I have to ask again though, since you ignored me the first time: what do you gain? Text rendering is really really slow compared to memory allocation.
> Remember, I'm talking about the API to a Go wrapper around SDL.
We were talking about using malloc/free vs. a resizable buffer. Happy to progress the discussion towards a Go API, however. That, obviously, is going to look something more like this:
I have no idea why you think it would look like that monstrosity you came up with.> No. We were talking about using malloc/free vs. a resizable buffer.
No. This is a conversation about Go. My example[1], that you responded to, was an example taken from a real-world project I've worked on which uses Go wrappers around SDL functions to render text. Nowhere did I mention malloc or free, you brought those up.
The code you gave this time is literally my first example (again, [1]), which allocates a new surface every time, except that you forgot to destroy the surface. Good job.
Can this conversation be over now?
[1] https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=47088409
I invite you to read the code again. You missed a few things. Notably it uses a shared memory buffer, as discussed, and does free it upon defer being executed. It is essentially equivalent to the second C snippet above, while your original example is essentially equivalent to the first C snippet.
Wait, so your wrapper around SDL_Renderer now also inexplicably contains a scratch buffer? I guess that explains why you put RenderTextToSurface on your SDL_Renderer wrapper, but ... that's some really weird API design. Why does the SDL_Renderer wrapper know how to use SDL_TTF or PangoCairo to draw text to a surface? Why does SDL_Renderer then own the resulting surface?
To anyone used to SDL, your proposed API is extremely surprising.
It would've made your point clearer if you'd explained this coupling between SDL_Renderer and text rendering in your original post.
But yes, I concede that if there was any reason to do so, putting a scratch surface into your SDL_Renderer that you can auto-resize and render text to would be a solution that makes for slightly nicer API design. Your SDL_Renderer now needs to be passed around as a parameter to stuff which only ought to need to concern itself with CPU rendering, and you now need to deal with mutexes if you have multiple goroutines rendering text, but those would've been alright trade-offs -- again, if there was a reason to do so. But there's not; the allocation is fast and the text rendering is slow.
You're right to call out that the SDLRenderer name was a poor choice. SDL is an implementation detail that should be completely hidden from the user of the API. That it may or may not use SDL under the hood is irrelevant to the user of the API. If the user wanted to use SDL, they would do so directly. The whole point of this kind of abstraction, of course, is to decouple of the dependence on something like SDL. Point taken.
Aside from my failure in dealing with the hardest problem in computer science, how would you improve the intent of the API? It is clearly improved over the original version, but we would do well to iterate towards something even better.
I think the most obvious improvement would be: just make it a free function which returns a surface, text rendering is slow and allocation is fast
That is a good point. If text rendering is slow, why are you not doing it in parallel? This is what 9rx called out earlier.
Some hypothetical example numbers: if software-rendering text takes 0.1 milliseconds, and I have a handful of text strings to render, I may not care that rendering the strings takes a millisecond or two.
But that 0.1 millisecond to render a string is an eternity compared to the time it takes to allocate some memory, which might be on the order of single digit microseconds. Saving a microsecond from a process which takes 0.1 milliseconds isn't noticeable.
You might not care today, but the next guy tasked to render many millions of strings tomorrow does care. If he has to build yet another API that ultimately does the same thing and is almost exactly the same, something has gone wrong. A good API is accommodating to users of all kinds.
I think I've been successfully nerd sniped.
It might be preferable to create a font atlas and just allocate printable ASCII characters as a spritesheet (a single SDL_Texture* reference and an array of rects.) Rather than allocating a texture for each string, you just iterate the string and blit the characters, no new allocations necessary.
If you need something more complex, with kerning and the like, the current version of SDL_TTF can create font atlases for various backends.
Completely depends on context. If you're rendering dynamically changing text, you should do as you say. If you have some completely static text, there's really nothing wrong with doing the text rendering once using PangoCairo and then re-using that texture. Doing it with PangoCairo also lets you do other fancy things like drop shadows easier.
Files are IO, which means a lot of waiting. For what reason wouldn't you want to open them concurrently?
Opening a file is fairly fast (at least if you're on Linux; Windows not so much). Synchronous code is simpler than concurrent code. If processing files sequentially is fast enough, for what reason would you want to open them concurrently?
For concurrent processing you'd probably do something like splitting the file names into several batches and process those batches sequentially in each goroutine, so it's very much possible that you'd have an exact same loop for the concurrent scenario.
P.S. If you have enough files you don't want to try to open them all at once — Go will start creating more and more threads to handle the "blocked" syscalls (open(2) in this case), and you can run out of 10,000 threads too
You'd probably have to be doing something pretty unusual to not use a worker queue. Your "P.S." point being a perfect case in point as to why.
If you have a legitimate reason for doing something unusual, it is fine to have to use the tools unusually. It serves as a useful reminder that you are purposefully doing something unusual rather than simply making a bad design choice. A good language makes bad design decisions painful.
You have now transformed the easy problem of "iterate through some files" into the much more complex problem of either finding a work queue library or writing your own work queue library; and you're baking in the assumption that the only reasonable way to use that work queue is to make each work item exactly one file.
What you propose is not a bad solution, but don't come here and pretend it's the only reasonable solution for almost all situations. It's not. Sometimes, you want each work item to be a list of files, if processing one file is fast enough for synchronisation overhead to be significant. Often, you don't have to care so much about the wall clock time your loop takes and it's fast enough to just do sequentially. Sometimes, you're implementing a non-important background task where you intentionally want to only bother one core. None of these are super unusual situations.
It is telling that you keep insisting that any solution that's not a one-file-per-work-item work queue is super strange and should be punished by the language's design, when you haven't even responded to my core argument that: sometimes sequential is fast enough.
> It is telling that you keep insisting
Keep insisting? What do you mean by that?
> when you haven't even responded to my core argument that: sometimes sequential is fast enough.
That stands to reason. I wasn't responding to you. The above comment was in reply to nasretdinov.
Your comment was in reply to nasretdinov, but its fundamental logic ignores what I've been telling you this whole time. You're pretending that the only solution to iterating through files is a work queue and that any solution that does a synchronous open/close for each iteration is fundamentally bad. I have told you why it isn't: you don't always need the performance.
Using a "work queue", i.e. a channel would still have a for loop like
Which would have the same exact problem :)I don't see the problem.
or more realistically, Perhaps you can elaborate?I did read your code, but it is not clear where the worker queue is. It looks like it ranges over (presumably) a channel of filenames, which is not meaningfully different than ranging over a slice of filenames. That is the original, non-concurrent solution, more or less.
I think they imagine a solution like this:
Maybe, but why would one introduce coupling between the worker queue and the work being done? That is a poor design.
Now we know why it was painful. What is interesting here is that the pain wasn't noticed as a signal that the design was off. I wonder why?
We should dive into that topic. I suspect at the heart of it lies why there is so much general dislike for Go as a language, with it being far less forgiving to poor choices than a lot of other popular languages.
I think your issue is that you're an architecture astronaut. This is not a compliment. It's okay for things to just do the thing they're meant to do and not be super duper generic and extensible.
It is perfectly okay inside of a package. Once you introduce exports, like as seen in another thread, then there is good reason to think more carefully about how users are going to use it. Pulling the rug out from underneath them later when you discover your original API was ill-conceived is not good citizenry.
But one does still have to be mindful if they want to write software productively. Using a "super duper generic and extensible" solution means that things like error propagation is already solved for you. Your code, on the other hand, is going to quickly become a mess once you start adding all that extra machinery. It didn't go unnoticed that you conveniently left that out.
Maybe that no longer matters with LLMs, when you don't even have to look the code and producing it is effectively free, but LLMs these days also understand how defer works so then this whole thing becomes moot.
I would like to second this.
In Golang if you iterate over a thousand files and
your OS will run out of file descriptorsWell, unless you're on Windows :D Even on Windows XP Home Edition I could open a million file handles with no problems.
Seriously, why is default ulimit on file descriptors on Linux measly 1024?
Some system calls like select() will not work if there are more than 1024 FDs open (https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/select.2.html), so it probably (?) makes sense to default to it. Although I don't really think that in 2k26 it makes sense to have such a low limit on desktops, that is true.
https://0pointer.net/blog/file-descriptor-limits.html
defer was invented by Andrei Alexandrescu who spelled it scope(exit)/scope(failure) [Zig's errdefer]/scope(success) ... it first appeared in D 2.0 after Andrei convinced Walter Bright to add it.
Both defer and RAII have proven to be useful, but RAII has also proven to be quite harmful in cases, in the limit introducing a lot of hidden control flow.
I think that defer is actually limited in ways that are good - I don't see it introducing surprising control flow in the same way.
Defer is also hidden control flow. At the end of every block, you need to read backwards in the entire block to see if a defer was declared in order to determine where control will jump to. Please stop pretending that defer isn't hidden control flow.
> RAII has also proven to be quite harmful in cases
The downsides of defer are much worse than the "downsides" of RAII. Defer is manual and error-prone, something that you have to remember to do every single time.
Defer is a restricted form of COMEFROM with automatic labels. You COMEFROM the end of the next `defer` block in the same scope, or from the end of the function (before `return`) if there is no more `defer`. The order of execution of defer-blocks is backwards (bottom-to-top) rather than the typical top-to-bottom.
Will evaluate:That is the most cursed description I have seen on how defer works. Ever.
This is how it would look with explicit labels and comefrom:
---`defer` is obviously not implemented in this way, it will re-order the code to flow top-to-bottom and have fewer branches, but the control flow is effectively the same thing.
In theory a compiler could implement `comefrom` by re-ordering the basic blocks like `defer` does, so that the actual runtime evaluation of code is still top-to-bottom.
But of course what you call "surprising" and "hidden" is also RAII's strength.
It allows library authors to take responsibility for cleaning up resources in exactly one place rather than forcing library users to insert a defer call in every single place the library is used.
RAII also composes.
This certainly isn't RAII—the term is quite literal, Resource Acquisition Is Initialization, rather than calling code as the scope exits. This is the latter of course, not the former.
People often say that "RAII" is kind of a misnomer; the real power of RAII is deterministic destruction. And I agree with this sentiment; resource acquisition is the boring part of RAII, deterministic destruction is where the utility comes from. In that sense, there's a clear analogy between RAII and defer.
But yeah, RAII can only provide deterministic destruction because resource acquisition is initialization. As long as resource acquisition is decoupled from initialization, you need to manually track whether a variable has been initialized or not, and make sure to only call a destruction function (be that by putting free() before a return or through 'defer my_type_destroy(my_var)') in the paths where you know that your variable is initialized.
So "A limited form of RAII" is probably the wrong way to think about it.
> and make sure to...call a destruction function
Which removes half the value of RAII as I see it—needing when and to know how to unacquire the resource is half the battle, a burden that using RAII removes.
Of course, calling code as the scope exits is still useful. It just seems silly to call it any form of RAII.
In my opinion, it's the initialization part of RAII which is really powerful and still missing from most other languages. When implemented properly, RAII completely eliminates a whole class of bugs related to uninitialized or partially initialized objects: if all initialization happens during construction, then you either have a fully initialized correct object, or you exit via an exception, no third state. Additionaly, tying resources to constructors makes the correct order of freeing these resources automatic. If you consume all your dependencies during construction, then destructors just walk the dependency graph in the correct order without you even thinking about it. Agreed, that writing your code like this requires some getting used to and isn't even always possible, but it's still a very powerful idea that goes beyond simple automatic destruction
This sounds like a nice theoretical benefit to a theoretical RAII system (or even a practical benefit to RAII in Rust), but in C++, I encounter no end of bugs related to uninitialized or partially initialized objects. All primitive types have a no-op constructor, so objects of those types are uninitialized by default. Structs containing members of primitive types can be in partially initialized states where some members are uninitialized because of a missing '= 0'.
It's not uncommon that I encounter a bug when running some code on new hardware or a new architecture or a new compiler for the first time because the code assumed that an integer member of a class would be 0 right after initialization and that happened to be true before. ASan helps here, but it's not trivial to run in all embedded contexts (and it's completely out of the question on MCUs).
I think you are both right, to some degree.
It's been some since I have used C++, but as far as I understand it RAII is primarily about controlling leaks, rather than strictly defined state (even if the name would imply that) once the constructor runs. The core idea is that if resource allocations are condensed in constructors then destructors gracefully handle deallocations, and as long you don't forget about the object (_ptr helpers help here) the destructors get called and you don't leak resources. You may end up with a bunch of FooManager wrapper classes if acquisition can fail (throw), though. So yes, I agree with your GP comment, it's the deterministic destruction that is the power of RAII.
On the other hand, what you refer to in this* comment and what parent hints at with "When implemented properly" is what I have heard referred to (non English) type totality. Think AbstractFoo vs ConcreteFoo, but used not only for abstracting state and behavior in class hierarchy, but rather to ensure that objects are total. Imagine, dunno, database connection. You create some AbstractDBConnection (bad name), which holds some config data, then the open() method returns OpenDBCOnnection() object. In this case Abstract does not even need to call close() and the total object can safely call close() in the destructor. Maybe not the best example. This avoids resources that are in an undefined state.
You're talking about the part of C++ that was inherited from C. Unfortunately, it was way too late to fix by the time RAII was even invented
And the consequence is that, at least in C++, we don't see the benefit you describe of "objects can never be in an uninitialized or partially-initialized state".
Anyway, I think this could be fixed, if we wanted to. C just describes the objects as being uninitialized and has a bunch of UB around uninitialized objects. Nothing in C says that an implementation can't make every uninitialized object 0. As such, it would not harm C interoperability if C++ just declared that all variable declarations initialize variables to their zero value unless the declaration initializes it to something else.
It's possible to fix this in application code with a Primitive<T> or NoDefault<T> wrapper that acts like a T, except doesn't have a default constructor. Use Primitive<int> wherever you'd use int that it matters (e.g. struct fields), and leaving it uninitialized will be a compiler error.
Yea no. I'm not gonna do that.
[dead]
To be fair, RAII is so much more than just automatic cleanup. It's a shame how misunderstood this idea has become over the years
Can you share some sources that give a more complete overview of it?
I got out my 4e Stroustrup book and checked the index, RAII only comes up when discussing resource management.
Interestingly, the verbatim introduction to RAII given is:
> ... RAII allows us to eliminate "naked new operations," that is, to avoid allocations in general code and keep them buried inside the implementation of well-behaved abstractions. Similarly "naked delete" operations should be avoided. Avoiding naked new and naked delete makes code far less error-prone and far easier to keep free of resource leaks
From the embedded standpoint, and after working with Zig a bit, I'm not convinced about that last line. Hiding heap allocations seems like it make it harder to avoid resource leaks!
> Hiding heap allocations seems like it make it harder to avoid resource leaks!
Because types come in constructor / destructor pairs. When creating variables, you're forced to invoke a constructor, and when an the object's lifetime ends, the compiler will insert a destructor call for you. If you allocate on construction and de-allocate on destruction, it'll be very hard for the leak to happen because you can't forget to call the destructor
> with extra braces
The extra braces appear to be optional according to the examples in https://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n3734.pdf (see pages 13-14)
A long overdue feature.
Though I do wonder what the chances are that the C subset of C++ will ever add this feature. I use my own homespun "scope exit" which runs a lambda in a destructor quite a bit, but every time I use it I wish I could just "defer" instead.
Never, you can already do this with RAII, and naturally it would be yet another thing to complain about C++ adding features.
Then again, if someone is willing to push it through WG21 no matter what, maybe.
C++ implementations of defer are either really ugly thanks to using lambdas and explicitly named variables which only exist to have scoped object, or they depend on macros which need to have either a long manually namespaced name or you risk stepping on the toes of a library. I had to rename my defer macro from DEFER to MYPOROGRAM_DEFER in a project due to a macro collision.
C++ would be a nicer language with native defer. Working directly with C APIs (which is one of the main reasons to use C++ over Rust or Zig these days) would greatly benefit from it.
Because they are all the consequence of holding it wrong, avoiding RAII solutions.
Working with native C APIs in C++ is akin to using unsafe in Rust, C#, Swift..., it should be wrapped in type safe functions or classes/structs, never used directly outside implementation code.
If folks actually followed this more often, there would be so much less CVE reports in C++ code caused by calling into C.
> Because they are all the consequence of holding it wrong, avoiding RAII solutions.
The reason why C++ is as popular as it is is in large part due to how easy it is to upgrade an existing C codebase in-place. Doing a complete RAII rewrite is at best a long term objective, if not often completely out of the question.
Acknowledging this reality means giving affordances like `defer` that allow upgrading C codebases and C++ code written in a C style easier without having to rewrite the universe. Because if you're asking me to rewrite code in a C++ style all in one go, I might not pick C++.
EDIT: It also occurs to me that destructors also have limitations. They can't throw, which means that if you encounter an issue in a dtor you often have to ignore it and hope it wasn't important.
I ran into this particular annoyance when I was writing my own stream abstractions - I had to hope that closing the stream in the dtor didn't run into trouble.
You can use a function try block on the destructor, additionally thanks to C++ metaprogramming capabilities, many of these handler classes can be written only once and reused across multiple scenarios.
Yes, unfortunely that compatibility is also the Achilles hill of C++, so many C++ libraries that are plain old C libraries with extern "C { .... } added in when using a C++ compiler, and also why so many CVEs keep happening in C++ code.
If I'm gonna write RAII wrappers around every tiny little thing that I happen to need to call once... I might as well just use Rust and make the wrappers do FFI.
If I'm constructing a particular C object once in my entire code base, calling a couple functions on it, then freeing it, I'm not much more likely to get it right in the RAII wrapper than in the one place in my code base I do it manually. At least if I have tools like defer to help me.
if you do it once - why do you care about "ugly" scope_exit? btw, writing such wrappers is easy and does not require a lot of code.
What do you mean with '"ugly" scope_exit'?
Do you mean why I care that I have to call the free function at every exit point of the scope? That's easy: because it's error prone. Defer is much less error prone.
your words... > C++ implementations of defer are either really ugly
I agree with @pjmlp - you need to write wrappers around the C api.
But if you.. > If I'm gonna write RAII wrappers around every tiny little thing that I happen to need to call once
use them just once.. so, why care about ugliness, just write ugly code just once? Code can't be perfect.
Not to mention that the `scope_success` and `scope_failure` variants have to use `std::uncaught_exceptions()`, which is hostile to codegen and also has other problems, especially in coroutines. C++ could get exception-aware variants of language defer.
What C++ really needs is an automated way to handle exceptions in destructors, similar to how Java does in its try-with-resources finally blocks.
While not automated, you can make use of function-try-blocks, e.g.:
-- https://cpp.godbolt.org/z/55oMarbqYNow with C++26 reflection, one could eventually generate such boilerplate.
What I’m thinking of is that the C++ exception runtime would attach exceptions from destructors to any in-flight exception, forming an exception tree, instead of calling std::terminate. (And also provide an API to access that tree.) C++ already has to handle a potentially unlimited amount of simultaneous in-flight exceptions (nested destructor calls), so from a resource perspective having such a tree isn’t a completely new quality. In case of resource exhaustion, the latest exception to be attached can be replaced by a statically allocated resources_exhausted exception. Callbacks like the old std::unexpected could be added to customize the behavior.
The mechanism in Java I was alluding to is really the Throwable::addSuppressed method; it isn’t tied to the use of a try-block. Since Java doesn’t have destructors, it’s just that the try-with-resources statement is the canonical example of taking advantage of that mechanism.
I see, however I don't envision many folks on WG21 votting that in.
Various macro tricks have existed for a long time but nobody has been able to wrap the return statement yet. The lack of RAII-style automatic cleanups was one of the root causes for the legendary goto fail;[1] bug.
[1] https://gotofail.com/
I do not see how defer would have helped in this case.
People manually doing resource cleanup by using goto.
I'm assuming that using defer would have prevented the gotos in the first case, and the bug.
To be fair, there were multiple wrongs in that piece of code: avoiding typing with the forward goto cleanup pattern; not using braces; not using autoformatting that would have popped out that second goto statement; ignoring compiler warnings and IDE coloring of dead code or not having those warnings enabled in the first place.
C is hard enough as is to get right and every tool and development pattern that helps avoid common pitfalls is welcome.
The forward goto cleanup pattern is not something "wrong" that was done to "avoid typing". Goto cleanup is the only reasonable way I know to semi-reliably clean up resources in C, and is widely used among most of the large C code bases out there. It's the main way resource cleanup is done in Linux.
By putting all the cleanup code at the end of the function after a cleanup label, you have reduced the complexity of resource management: you have one place where the resource is acquired, and one place where the resource is freed. This is actually manageable. Before you return, you check every resource you might have acquired, and if your handle (pointer, file descriptor, PID, whatever) is not in its null state (null pointer, -1, whatever), you call the free function.
By comparison, if you try to put the correct cleanup functions at every exit point, the problem explodes in complexity. Whereas correctly adding a new resource using the 'goto cleanup' pattern requires adding a single 'if (my_resource is not its null value) { cleanup(my_resource) }' at the end of the function, correctly adding a new resource using the 'cleanup at every exit point' pattern requires going through every single exit point in the function, considering whether or not the resource will be acquired at that time, and if it is, adding the cleanup code. Adding a new exit point similarly requires going through all resources used by the function and determining which ones need to be cleaned up.
C is hard enough as it is to get right when you only need to remember to clean up resources in one place. It gets infinitely harder when you need to match up cleanup code with returns.
In theory, for straight-line code only, the If Statement Ladder of Doom is an alternative:
It is in particular universal in Microsoft documentation (but notably not actual Microsoft code; e.g. https://github.com/dotnet/runtime has plenty of cleanup gotos).In practice, well, the “of doom” part applies: two fallible functions on the main path is (I think) about as many as you can use it for and still have the code look reasonable. A well-known unreasonable example is the official usage sample for IFileDialog: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/shell/common....
I don't see this. The problem was a duplicate "goto fail" statement where the second one caused an incorrect return value to be returned. A duplicate defer statement could directly cause a double free. A duplicate "return err;" statement would have the same problem as the "goto fail" code. Potentially, a defer based solution could eliminate the variable for the return code, but this is not the only way to address this problem.
Is that true though?
Using defer, the code would be:
This has the exact same bug: the function exits with a successful return code as long as the SHA hash update succeeds, skipping further certificate validity checks. The fact that resource cleanup has been relegated to defer so that 'goto fail;' can be replaced with 'return err;' fixes nothing.It would have resulted in an uninitialized variable access warning, though.
I don't think so. The value is set in the assignment in the if statement even for the success path. With and without defer you nowadays get only a warning due to the misleading indentation: https://godbolt.org/z/3G4jzrTTr (updated)
No it wouldn't. 'err' is declared and initialized at the start of the function. Even if it wasn't initialized at the start, it would've been initialized by some earlier fallible function call which is also written as 'if ((err = something()) != 0)'
In many cases that's preferred as you want the ability to cancel the deferred lambda.
Just hope those lambdas aren't throwing exceptions ;)
It’s pedantic, but in the malloc example, I’d put the defer immediately after the assignment. This makes it very obvious that the defer/free goes along with the allocation.
It would run regardless of if malloc succeeded or failed, but calling free on a NULL pointer is safe (defined to no-op in the C-spec).
I'd say a lot of users are going to borrow patterns from Go, where you'd typically check the error first.
IMO this pattern makes more sense, as calling exit behavior in most cases won't make sense unless you have acquired the resource in the first place.free may accept a NULL pointer, but it also doesn't need to be called with one either.
This example is exactly why RAII is the solution to this problem and not defer.
I love RAII. C++ and Rust are my favourite languages for a lot of things thanks to RAII.
RAII is not the right solution for C. I wouldn't want C to grow constructors and destructors. So far, C only runs the code you ask it to; turning variable declaration into a hidden magic constructor call would, IMO, fly in the face of why people may choose C in the first place.
defer is literally just an explicit RAII in this example. That is, it's just unnecessary boiler plate to wrap the newResource handle into a struct in this context.
In addition, RAII has it's own complexities that need to be dealt with now, i.e. move semantics, which obviously C does not have nor will it likely ever.
> RAII has it's own complexities that need to be dealt with now, i.e. move semantics, which obviously C does not have nor will it likely ever.
In the example above, the question of "do I put defer before or after the `if err != nil` check" is deferred to the programmer. RAII forces you to handle the complexity, defer lets you shoot yourself in the foot.
It seems less pedantic and more unnecessarily dangerous due to its non uniformity: in the general case the resource won’t exist on error, and breaking the pattern for malloc adds inconsistency without any actual value gain.
Free works with NULL, but not all cleanup functions do. Instead of deciding whether to defer before or after the null check on a case-by-case basis based on whether the cleanup function handles NULL gracefully, I would just always do the defer after the null check regardless of which pair of allocation/cleanup functions I use.
3…2…1… and somebody writes a malloc macro that includes the defer.
Yes!! One step closer to having defer in the standard.
Related blog post from last year: https://thephd.dev/c2y-the-defer-technical-specification-its... (https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=43379265)
A related article discussing Gustedt’s first defer implementation, which also looks at the generated assembly:
https://oshub.org/projects/retros-32/posts/defer-resource-cl...
Would defer be considered hidden control flow? I guess it’s not so hidden since it’s within the same function unlike destructors, exceptions, longjmp.
It's one of the most commonly adopted feature among C successor languages (D, Zig, Odin, C3, Hare, Jai); given how opinionated some of them are on these topics, I think it's safe to say it's generally well regarded in PL communities.
What I always hated about defer is that you can simply forget or place it in the wrong position. Destructors or linear types (must-use-once types) are a much better solution.
In Nim too, although, the author doesn't like it much.
It breaks the idea that statements get executed in the order they appear in the source code, but it ‘only’ moves and sometimes deduplicates (in functions with multiple exit points) statements, it doesn’t hide them.
Of course, that idea already isn’t correct in many languages; function arguments are evaluated before a function is called, operator precedence often breaks it, etc, but this moves entire statements, potentially by many lines.
Yes, defer is absolutely a form of hidden control flow, even if it's less egregious than exceptions.
Always gives me COMEFROM vibes.
Can somebody explain why this is significantly better than using goto pattern?
Genuinely curious as I only have a small amount of experience with c and found goto to be ok so far
I feel like C people, out of anyone, should respect the code gen wins of defer. Why would you rely on runtime conditional branches for everything you want cleaned up, when you can statically determine what cleanup functions need to be called?
In any case, the biggest advantage IMO is that resource acquisition and cleanup are next to each other. My brain understands the code better when I see "this is how the resource is acquired, this is how the resource will be freed later" next to each other, than when it sees "this is how this resource is acquired" on its own or "this is how the resource is freed" on its own. When writing, I can write the acquisition and the free at the same time in the same place, making me very unlikely to forget to free something.
Defer might be better than nothing, but it's still a poor solution. An obvious example of a better, structural solution is C#'s `using` blocks.
While we don't have the same simplicity in C because we don't use this "disposable" pattern, we could still perhaps learn something from syntax and use a secondary block to have scoped defers. Something like: That's no so different to how a `for` block works: A trivial "hack" for this kind of scoped defer would be to just wrap a for loop in a macro:That is a different approach, but I don't think you've demonstrated why it's better. Seems like that approach forces you to introduce a new scope for every resource, which might otherwise be unnecessary:
Compared to: Of course if you want the extra scopes (for whatever reason), you can still do that with defer, you're just not forced to.While the macro version doesn't permit this, if it were built-in syntax (as in C#) we can write something like:
The argument for this approach is it is structural. `defer` statements are not structural control flow: They're `goto` or `comefrom` in disguise.---
Even if we didn't want to introduce new scope, we could have something like F#'s `use`[1], which makes the resource available until the end of the scope it was introduced.
In either case (using or use-defer), the acquisition and release are coupled together in the code. With `defer` statements they're scattered as separate statements. The main argument for `defer` is to keep the acquisition and release of resources together in code, but defer statements fail at doing that.[1]:https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/fsharp/language-ref...
>"this is how the resource is acquired, this is how the resource will be freed later"
Lovely fairy tale. Now can you tell me how you love to scroll back and examine all the defer blocks within a scope when it ends to understand what happens at that point?
I don't typically do that. In 99.999% of cases, 'defer free(something)' was done because it's the correct thing to do at every exit point, so I don't need to think about it at the end of the block.
If you only ever work in your own code bases, sure.
It allows you to put the deferred logic near the allocation/use site which I noticed was helpful in Go as it becomes muscle memory to do cleanup as you write some new allocation and it is hinted by autocomplete these days.
But it adds a new dimension of control flow, which in a garbage collected language like Go is less worrisome whereas in C this can create new headaches in doing things in the right order. I don't think it will eliminate goto error handling for complex cases.
The advantage is that it automatically adds the cleanup code to all exit paths, so you can not forget it for some. Whether this is really that helpful is unclear to me. When we looked at defer originally for C, Robert Seacord hat a list of examples and how the looked before and after rewriting with defer. At that point I lost interest in this feature, because the new code wasn't generally better in my opinion.
But people know it from other languages, and seem to like it, so I guess it is good to have it also in C.
Thanks, seems like the document is this one
http://robertseacord.com/wp/2020/09/10/adding-a-defer-mechan...
If I remember correctly he had much more examples somewhere, but I am not sure this was ever shared in public.
Confer the recent bug related to goto-error handling in OpenSSH where the "additional" error return value wasn’t caught and allowed a security bypass accepting a failed key.
Cleanup is good. Jumping around with "goto" confused most people in practice. It seems highly likely that most programmers model "defer" differently in their minds.
EDIT:
IIRC it was CVE-2025-26465. Read the code and the patch.
It is not clear to me that defer helps here. The issue is management of state (the return value) not control flow.
The return value depends on control flow ("obvious", please bear with me):
With "goto" the cleanup-up can jump anywhere. With "defer" the cleanup cannot really jump anywhere. It is easier to mentally stick to simply cleaning up in a common sense way. And taking care of multiple "unrelated" clean-up steps is "handled for you."
(Attacks on this sometimes approach complaints about lack of "common sense".)
1. Goto pattern is very error-prone. It works until it doesn't and you have a memory leak. The way I solved this issue in my code was a macro that takes a function and creates an object that has said function in its destructor.
2. Defer is mostly useful for C++ code that needs to interact with C API because these two are fundamentally different. C API usually exposes functions "create_something" and "destroy_something", while the C++ pattern is to have an object that has "create_something" hidden inside its constructor, and "destroy_something" inside its destructor.
I found that some error prone cases are harder to express with defer in zig.
For example if I have a ffi function that transfers the ownership of some allocator in the middle of the function.
I’m just going to start teaching classes of C programming to university first-year CS students. Would you teach `defer` straight away to manage allocated memory?
My suggestion is no - first have them do it the hard way. This will help them build the skills to do manual memory management where defer is not available.
Once they do learn about defer they will come to appreciate it much more.
In university? No, absolutely not straight away.
The point of a CS degree is to know the fundamentals of computing, not the latest best practices in programming that abstract the fundamentals.
My university also taught best practices alongside that, everytime. I am very grateful for that.
Absolutely the wrong take. You can teach CS with just pencil and paper, but that doesn’t advance the technology, it might only benefit academia in a narrow sense. CS students should be actively engineering software in addition to doing science.
It's still only in a TS, not in ISO C, if that matters.
No, but also skip malloc/free until late in the year, and when it comes to heap allocation then don't use example code which allocates and frees single structs, instead introduce concepts like arena allocators to bundle many items with the same max lifetime, pool allocators with generation-counted slots and other memory managements strategies.
Is there any C tutorials you know that do that so I can try to learn how to do it?
Shameless plug ;)
https://floooh.github.io/2018/06/17/handles-vs-pointers.html
This only covers one aspect though (pools indexed by 'generation-counted-index-handles' to solve temporal memory safety - e.g. a runtime solution for use-after-free).
No. They need to understand memory failures. Teach them what it looks like when it's wrong. Then show them the tools to make things right. They'll never fully understand those tools if they don't understand the necessity of doing the right thing.
IMHO, it is in the best interest of your students to teach them standard C first.
There is a technical specification, so hopefully it will be standard C in the next version. And given that gcc and clang already have implementatians (and gcc has had a way to do it for a long time, although the syntax is quite different).
It is not yet a technical specification, just a draft for one, but this will hopefully change this year, and the defer patch has not been merged into GCC yet. So I guess it will become part of C at some point if experience with it is good, but at this time it is an extension.
I was under the wrong assumption that defer was approved for the next standard already.
We will likely decide in March that it will became an ISO TS. Given the simplicity of the feature and its popularity, I would assume that it will become part of the standard eventually.
That’s great news!
Yes.
If you're teaching them to write an assembler, then it may be worth teaching them C, as a fairly basic language with a straightforward/naive mapping to assembly. But for basically any other context in which you'd be teaching first-year CS students a language, C is not an ideal language to learn as a beginner. Teaching C to first-year CS students just for the heck of it is like teaching medieval alchemy to first-year chemistry students.
I think I heard this in some cppcon video, from uni teacher who had to make students know both C and Python, so he experimented for several years
learning Python first is same difficulty as learning C first (because main problem is the whole concept of programming)
and learning C after Python is harder than learning Python after C (because of pointers)
Learning C after Python made me actually understand Python semantics. Python also has pointers, you just don't get to control them.
Absolutely, it's not their first language. In our curriculum C programming is part of the Operating Systems course and comes after Computer Architecture where they see assembly. So its purpose is to be low level to understand what's under the hood. To learn programming itself they use other languages (currently Java, for better or worse, but I don't have voice on that choice).
C is the best language to learn as a beginner.
At no point in human history has C been the best language for beginners. C was, like Javascript, hacked together in a weekend by someone who wished they could be using a better language. It was burdened with flaws from the outset and considered archaic in its design almost immediately. The best thing that can be said about the design of C is that it's at least a structured programming language, which is damning with faint praise.
> C was, like Javascript, hacked together in a weekend by someone who wished they could be using a better language.
Citation needed. C was evolved from B as part of the development of a popular OS. It did take a lot more time and consideration than a weekend.
The Linux kernel has been using __attribute___((cleanup)) for a little while now. So far, I've only seen/used it in cases where the alternative (one goto label) isn't very bad. Even there it's basically welcome.
But there are lots of cases in the kernel where we have 10+ goto labels for error paths in complex setup functions. I think when this starts making its way into those areas it will really start having an impact on bugs.
Sure, most of those bugs are low impact (it's rare that an attacker can trigger the broken error paths) but still, this is basically free software quality, it would be silly to leave it on the table.
And then there's the ACTUAL motivation: it makes the code look nicer.
In C I just used goto - you put a cleanup section at the bottom of your code and your error handling just jumps to it.
The advantage being that you never have to remember which things are to be freed at which particular error state. The style also avoids lots of nesting because it returns early. It's not as nice as having defer but it does help in larger functions.> The advantage being that you never have to remember which things are to be freed at which particular error state.
You also don't have to remember this when using defer. That's the point of defer - fire and forget.
One small nitpick: you don't need check before `free` call, using `free(NULL)` is fine.
You're right that it's not needed in my example but sometimes the thing that you're freeing has pointers inside it which themselves have to be freed first and in that case you need the if.
There are several other issues I haven't shown like what happens if you need to free something only when the return code is "FALSE" indicating that something failed.
This is not as nice as defer but up till now it was a comparatively nice way to deal with those functions which were really large and complicated and had many exit points.
If you have something which contains pointers, you should have a destructor function for it, which itself should check if the pointer is not NULL before attempting to free any fields.
We are talking about C. A destructor function in C is a function that gets called when the library gets unloaded. No you shouldn't have a destructor function for it.
The C language has no such concept of attribute destructor and I am not talking about attribute destructor.
I just mean, in the simple English sense, a function which exists to deallocate a structure.
That's certainly one way to do it if you're writing all the code.
If you have something which doesn't come with such a function, nothing stops you writing it?
But it does keep one in the habit of using NULL checks.
It is pointless, because in Linux all you get is a virtual address. Physical backing is only allocated on first use.
In other words, the first time you access a "freshly allocated" non-null pointer you may get a page fault due to insufficient physical memory.
By default, yes. You can configure it to not overcommit
Right, but as a programmer you rarely have control over that. And even if you do, you often can't handle out of memory errors gracefully.
Thus, for a typical situation it is reasonable to log the error and bail out, rather than adding extra custom error handling around every single memory allocation, which ends up being code that is never tested.
defer is a stack, scope local and allows cleanup code to be optically close to initialization code.
The disadvantage is that a "goto fail" can easily happen with this approach. And it actually had happened in the wild.
This looks like a recipe for disaster when you'll free something in the return path that shouldn't be freed because it's part of the function's result, or forget to free something in a success path. Just write
if you meant At least then you'll be able to follow the control flow without remembering what the magic macro does.In your cleanup method you have to take the same care of parameters that you are putting results into as any other way you can deal with this. All it does is save you from repeating such logic at all the exit points.
But you have to give this cleanup jump label a different name for every function.
You don't. Labels are local to functions in C.
I have a personal aversion to defer as a language feature. Some of this is aesthetic. I prefer code to be linear, which is to say that instructions appear in the order that they are evaluated. Further, the presence of defer almost always implies that there are resources that can leak silently.
I also dislike RAII because it often makes it difficult to reason about when destructors are run and also admits accidental leaks just like defer does. Instead what I would want is essentially a linear type system in the compiler that allows one to annotate data structures that require cleanup and errors if any possible branches fail to execute the cleanup. This has the benefit of making cleanup explicit while also guaranteeing that it happens.
If you dislike things happening out of lexical order, I expect must already dislike C because of one of its many notorious footguns, which is that the evaluation order of function arguments is implementation-defined.
About RAII, I think your viewpoint is quite baffling. Destructors are run at one extremely well-defined point in the code: `}`. That's not hard to reason about at all. Especially not compared to often spaghetti-like cleanup tails. If you're lucky, the team does not have a policy against `goto`.
> I have a personal aversion to defer as a language feature.
Indeed, `defer` as a language feature is an anti-pattern.
It does not allow the abstraction of initialization/de-initialization routines and encapsulating their execution within the resources, transferring the responsibility to manually perform the release or de-initialization to the users of the resources - for each use of the resource.
> I also dislike RAII because it often makes it difficult to reason about when destructors are run [..]
RAII is a way to abstract initialization, it says nothing about where a resource is initialized.
When combined with stack allocation, now you have something that gives you precise points of construction/destruction.
The same can be said about heap allocation in some sense, though this tends to be more manual and could also involve some dynamic component (ie, a tracing collector).
> [..] and also admits accidental leaks just like defer does.
RAII is not memory management, it's an initialization discipline.
> [..] what I would want is essentially a linear type system in the compiler that allows one to annotate data structures that require cleanup and errors if any possible branches fail to execute the cleanup. This has the benefit of making cleanup explicit while also guaranteeing that it happens.
Why would you want to replicate the same cleanup procedure for a certain resource throughout the code-base, instead of abstracting it in the resource itself?
Abstraction and explicitness can co-exist. One does not rule out the other.
Failure is inherently "non-linear" in this sense, unless there is exhaustive case-analysis. That sounds a lot like "just never program a mistake."
As others have commented already: if you want to use C++, use C++. I suspect the majority of C programmers neither care nor want stuff like this; I still stay with C89 because I know it will be portable anywhere, and complexities like this are completely at odds with the reason to use C in the first place.
I would say the complexity of implementing defer yourself is a bit annoying for C. However defer itself, as a language feature in a C standard is pretty reasonable. It’s a very straightforward concept and fits well within the scope of C, just as it fit within the scope of zig. As long as it’s the zig defer, not the golang one…
I would not introduce zig’s errdeferr though. That one would need additional semantics changes in C to express errors.
>pretty reasonable
It starts out small. Then before you know the language is total shit. Python is a good example.
I am observing a very distinguishable phenomenon when internet makes very shallow ideas mainstream and ruin many many good things that stood the test of time.
I am not saying this is one of those instances, but what the parent comment makes sense to me. You can see another comment who now wants to go further and want destructors in C. Because of internet, such voices can now reach out to each other, gather and cause a change. But before, such voices would have to go through a lot of sensible heads before they would be able to reach each other. In other words, bad ideas got snuffed early before internet, but now they go mainstream easily.
So you see, it starts out slow, but then more and more stuff gets added which diverges more and more from the point.
I get your point, though in the specific case of defer, looks like we both agree it's really a good move. No more spaghetti of goto err_*; in complex initialization functions.
>we both agree it's really a good move
Actually I am not sure I do. It seems to me that even though `defer` is more explicit than destructors, it still falls under "spooky action at a distance" category.
I don't understand why destructors enter the discussion. This is C, there is no destructors. Are you comparing "adding destructors to C" vs "adding defer to C"?
The former would be bring so much in C that it wouldn't be C anymore.
And if your point is "you should switch to C++ to get destructors", then it seems out of topic. By very definition, if we're talking about language X and your answer is "switch to Y", this is an entirely different subject, of very few interest to people programming in X.
Sorry, I had some other thread that involved destructors in my head.
But the point is `defer` is still in "spooky action at a distance" category that I generally don't want in programming languages, especially in c.
Defer is not spooky action at a distance. It is an explicit statement that gets executed as written. Unlike (for example, a familiar feature which C doesn’t have) operator overloading… which causes code that looks like one thing (adition for example) behave like another (a function call). Defer does exactly what it says on the tin can (“move this line to the end of the scope”), just like goto does exactly what it claims to do.
Macros (in general) are way spookier than a defer statement.
>move this line to the end of the scope
Where it is invisible! What is so hard about this to understand?
>operator overloading..
Yes, but if we go by your argument, you can say it gets executed exactly as it is written. It is just that it is written (ie overloading) somewhere else ie "at distance"...just like a defer block that could be far from the end of the scope that is trigerring it
> `defer` is still in "spooky action at a distance" category
Agree, this is also why I'm a bit weary of it.
What brings me on the "pro" side is that, defer or not defer, there will need to be some kind of cleanup anyway. It's just a matter of where it is declared, and close to the acquisition is arguably better.
The caveat IMHO is that if a codebase is not consistent in its use, it could be worst.
But the real-world alternatives that people use are:
1. goto, which is "spooky action at a distance" to the nth degree. It's not even safe, you can goto anywhere, even out of scope.
2. cleanup attributes, which are not standard.
>goto, which is "spooky action at a distance" to the nth degree.
it is not.
It is, just the existence of goto makes control flow significantly harder to understand. People complain about exceptions in C++ obfuscating control flow, but then they recreate exceptions using goto. The funny thing is that exceptions are just fancy goto, the assembly is almost the same.
The bigger picture of C as a language is not that it's simple, because it's not simple at all. It's inept. It doesn't give developers the tools to write simple code. So easy things become hard, and we sort of jank together solutions that kind of work but usually don't.
I like to compare it to building a shed with power tools versus only a screwdriver. Is a screwdriver simpler than a power saw and all that? Of course. Now think about building a shed. Is it simpler to do with a screwdriver? No. It's much, much more complex. You have to develop complex processes to make that work, and it's not intuitive at all.
C is a language that already makes use of implicit control flow A LOT. I don't see defer being a problem. The irony is that if C just supported these use cases out-of-the-box, it would be simpler and easier. As a concrete example, consider polymorphism in C versus C++. Both languages can do it, but one provides the tools and one doesn't. In C++ I can go to definition, I can concretely define what polymorphism is allowed and what isn't, and the type system gives me the tools to make it safe. In C, none of that is true, so when we do polymorphism with function pointers, it's much harder to understand what's actually going on, or what could be going on.
It is not. That `GOTO` makes things hard does not shift it to some unrelated category.
> The funny thing is that exceptions are just fancy goto
Not even close.
>I like to compare it to building a shed with power tools versus only a screwdriver.
That analogy is completely wrong in the context.
> it's not intuitive at all.
It is completely intuitive, while the "modern" languages with "helpful" magic is not.
>C is a language that already makes use of implicit control flow A LOT.
> implicit
I don't think it means what you think it means. At least the examples you mention does not justify it.
None of these were arguments. You just said "nuh uh" in more words, which is really just a waste of storage.
>which is really just a waste of storage.
It is, if you choose not to think about those nuh uhs.
That comment is saying to use C++, not to add destructors to C.
Modern Python is great :shrug:
> I still stay with C89 because I know it will be portable anywhere
With respect, that sounds a bit nuts. It's been 37 years since C89; unless you're targeting computers that still have floppy drives, why give up on so many convenience features? Binary prefixes (0b), #embed, defined-width integer types, more flexibility with placing labels, static_assert for compile-time sanity checks, inline functions, declarations wherever you want, complex number support, designated initializers, countless other things that make code easier to write and to read.
Defer falls in roughly the same category. It doesn't add a whole lot of complexity, it's just a small convenience feature that doesn't add any runtime overhead.
To be honest I have similar reservations.
The one huge advantage of C is its ubiquity - you can use it on the latest shiny computer / OS / compiler as well as some obscure embedded platform with a compiler that hasn't been updated since 2002. (That's a rare enough situation to be unimportant, right? /laughs in industrial control gear.)
I'm wary of anything which fragments the language and makes it inaccessible to subsections of its traditional strongholds.
While I'm not a huge fan of the "just use Rust" attitude that crops up so often these days, you could certainly make an argument that if you want modern language features you should be using a more modern language.
(And, for the record, I do still write software - albeit recreationally - for computers that have floppy drives.)
C has its unique advantages that make some of us prefer it to C++ or Rust or other languages. But it also has some issues that can be addressed. IMHO it should evolve, but very slowly. C89 is certainly a much worse language than C99 and I think most of the changes in C23 were good. It is fine to not use them for the next two decades, but I think it is good that most projects moved on from C89 so it is also good that C99 exists even though it took a long time to be adopted. And the same will be true for C23 in the future.
I know this a four day old comment, but based on your post history I think you are probably the best person to ask to be more specific. So, you start out stating “C has its unique advantages”, an assertion I agree with but more for ‘vibes’ than because I can articulate the actual advantages (other than average compilation times). If you see this I would love to hear your list of C’s unique advantages.
My list of advantages:
I should also talk about disadvantages and which I think are real and which are not, or not serious
> The one huge advantage of C is its ubiquity - you can use it on the latest shiny computer / OS / compiler as well as some obscure embedded platform with a compiler that hasn't been updated since 2002.
First, for all platforms supported by mainstream compilers, which includes most of embedded systems (from 8 bit to 64 bit), this is not really a concern. You're cross-compiling on your desktop anyway. You'd need to deliberately install and use gcc from the early 1990s, but no one is forcing you. Are you routinely developing software for systems so niche that they aren't even supported by gcc?
But second, the code you write for the desktop is almost never the code you're gonna run in these environments, so why limit yourself across the board? In most embedded environments, especially legacy ones, you won't even have standard libc.
I think a lot of the really old school people don't care, but a lot of the younger people (especially those disillusioned with C++ and not fully enamored with Rust) are in fact quite happy for C to evolve and improve in conservative, simple ways (such as this one).
> still stay with C89
You're missing out on one of the best-integrated and useful features that have been added to a language as an afterthought (C99 designated initialization). Even many moden languages (e.g. Rust, Zig, C++20) don't get close when it comes to data initialization.
You mean what Ada and Modula-3, among others, already had before it came to C99?
Who cares who had it first, what matters is who has it, and who doesn't...
Apparently some do, hence my reply.
Just straight up huffing paint are we.
Explain why? Have you used C99 designated init vs other languages?
E.g. neither Rust, Zig nor C++20 can do this:
https://github.com/floooh/sokol-samples/blob/51f5a694f614253...
Odin gets really close but can't chain initializers (which is ok though):
https://github.com/floooh/sokol-odin/blob/d0c98fff9631946c11...
In general it would help if you would spend some text on describing what features of C99 are missing in other languages. Giving some code and assume that the reader will figure it out is not very effective.
As far as I can tell, Rust can do what it is in your example (which different syntax of course) except for this particular way of initializing an array.
To me, that seems like a pretty minor syntax issue to that could be added to Rust if there would be a lot of demand for initializing arrays this way.
I can show more code examples instead:
E.g. notice how here in Rust each nested struct needs a type annotation, even though the compiler could trivially infer the type. Rust also cannot initialize arrays with random access directly, it needs to go through an expression block. Finally Rust requires `..Default::default()`:
https://github.com/floooh/sokol-rust/blob/f824cd740d2ac96691...
Zig has most of the same issues as Rust, but at least the compiler is able to infer the nested struct types via `.{ }`:
https://github.com/floooh/sokol-zig/blob/17beeab59a64b12c307...
I don't have C++ code around, but compared to C99 it has the following restrictions:
- designators must appear in order (a no-go for any non-trivial struct)
- cannot chain designators (e.g. `.a.b.c = 123`)
- doesn't have the random array access syntax via `[index]`
> ...like a pretty minor syntax issue...
...sure, each language only has a handful minor syntax issues, but these papercuts add up to a lot of syntax noise to sift through when compared to the equivalent C99 code.
In Rust you can do "fn new(field: Field) -> Self { Self { field } )" This is in my experience the most common case of initializers in Rust. You don't mention one of the features of the Rust syntax, that you only have to specify the field name when you have a variable with the same name. In my experience, that reduces clutter a lot.
I have to admit, the ..Default::default() syntax is pretty ugly.
In theory Rust could do "let x: Foo = _ { field }" and "Foo { field: _ { bar: 1 } }". That doesn't even change the syntax. Its just whether enough people care.
designated initializers are really great and it's really annoying that C++ has such a crappy version of them. I wish there was a way to tell the compiler that the default value of some fields should not necessarily be 0, though it's ergonomic enough to do that anyway with a macro, since repeated values override.
i.e.
Not necessarily. In classic C we often build complex state machines to handle errors - especially when there are many things that need to be initialized (malloced) one after another and each might fail. Think the infamous "goto error".
I think defer{} can simplify these flows sometimes, so it can indeed be useful for good old style C.
That ship has sailed. Lots of open source C projects already use attribute((cleanup)) (which is the same thing).
Defer is a very simple feature where all code is still clearly visible and nothing is called behind your back. I write a lot of C++, and it's a vastly more complex language than "C with defer". Defer is so natural to C that all compilers have relatively broadly non-standard ways of mimicking it (e.g __attribute__((cleanup)).
If you want to write C++, write C++. If you want to write C, but want resource cleanup to be a bit nicer and more standard than __attribute__((cleanup)), use C with defer. The two are not comparable.
Isn’t goto cleanup label good enough anyway?
Goto approach also covers some more complicated cases
Then why not even better, K&R C with external assembler, that is top. /s
> external assembler
Is that supposed to exacerbate how poor that choice is. External assembly is great.
When talking about K&R C and the assembler provided by UNIX System V, yes.
Even today, the only usable Assemblers on UNIX platforms were born in PC or Amiga.
I quite dislike the defer syntax. IMO the cleanup attribute is the much nicer method of dealing with RAII in C.
I think C should be reset to C89 and then go over everything including proposals and accept only the good&compatible bits.
If you can't compile K&R, you should label your language "I can't believe it's not C!".
I don't have time to learn your esolang.
Such addition is great. But there is something even better - destructors in C++. Anyone who writes C should consider using C++ instead, where destructors provide a more convenient way for resources freeing.
C++ destructors are implicit, while defer is explicit.
You can just look at the code in front of you to see what defer is doing. With destructors, you need to know what type you have (not always easy to tell), then find its destructor, and all the destructors of its parent classes, to work out what's going to happen.
Sure, if the situation arises frequently, it's nice to be able to design a type that "just works" in C++. But if you need to clean up reliably in just this one place, C++ destructors are a very clunky solution.
Implicitness of destructors isn't a problem, it's an advantage - it makes code shorter. Freeing resources in an explicit way creates too much boilerplate and is bug-prone.
> With destructors, you need to know what type you have (not always easy to tell), then find its destructor, and all the destructors of its parent classes, to work out what's going to happen
Isn't it a code quality issue? It should be clear from class name/description what can happen in its destructor. And if it's not clear, it's not that relevant.
> Implicitness of destructors isn't a problem
It's absolutely a problem. Classically, you spend most of your time reading and debugging code, not writing it. When there's an issue pertaining to RAII, it is hidden away, potentially requiring looking at many subclasses etc.
Desctructors are only comparable when you build an OnScopeExit class which calls a user-provided lambda in its destructor which then does the cleanup work - so it's more like a workaround to build a defer feature using C++ features.
The classical case of 'one destructor per class' would require to design the entire code base around classes which comes with plenty of downsides.
> Anyone who writes C should consider using C++ instead
Nah thanks, been there, done that. Switching back to C from C++ about 9 years ago was one of my better decisions in life ;)
I think destructors are different, not better. A destructor can’t automatically handle the case where something doesn’t need to be cleaned up on an early return until something else occurs. Also, destructors are a lot of boilerplate for a one-off cleanup.
> A destructor can’t automatically handle the case where something doesn’t need to be cleaned up on an early return
It can. An object with destructor doing clean-up should be created only after such clean-up is needed. In case of a file, for example, a file object should be created at file opening, so that it can close the file in its destructor.
That’s fine when one wants to write a whole class for something. But sometimes a cleanup path is genuinely a one-off, and using something like defer is nice.
i write C++ every day (i actually like it...) but absolutely no one is going to switch from C to C++ just for dtors.
No, RAII is one of the primary improvements of C++ over C, and one of the most ubiquitous features that is allowed in "light" subsets of C++.
> but absolutely no one is going to switch from C to C++ just for dtors
The decision would be easier if the C subset in C++ would be compatible with modern C standards instead of being a non-standard dialect of C stuck in ca. 1995.
Of course not! Those that would have, already did!
Weren't dtors the reason GCC made the switch?
I don't think so. As a contributor to GCC, I also wished it hadn't.
Why do you think so?
For two reasons: First, where C++ features are used, it make the code harder to understand rather than easier. Second, it requires newer and more complex toolchains to build GCC itself. Some people still maintain the last C version of GCC just to keep the bootstrap path open.
I'm very far from compiler development, but in my experience, while C++ is hard to read, the equivalent C code would be much more unreadable.
This is not my experience at all. In fact, my experience is where C++ is used in GCC it became harder to read. Note that GCC was written in C and then introduced C++ features later so this is not hypothetical.
In general, I think clean C code is easier to read than C++ due to much less complexity and not having language features that make it more difficult to understand by hiding crucial information from the reader (overloading, references, templates, auto, ..).
For the cases where a destructor isn’t readily available, you can write a defer class that runs a lambda passed to its constructor in its destructor, can’t you?
Would be a bit clunky, but that can (¿somewhat?) be hidden in a macro, if desired.
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I took some shit in the comments yesterday for suggesting "you can do it with a few lines of standard C++" to another similar thread, but yet again here we are.
Defer takes 10 lines to implement in C++. [1]
You don't have to wait 50 years for a committee to introduce basic convenience features, and you don't have to use non-portable extensions until they do (and in this case the __attribute__((cleanup)) has no equivalent in MSVC), if you use a remotely extensible language.
[1] https://www.gingerbill.org/article/2015/08/19/defer-in-cpp/
Why is this a relevant comment? We're talking about C, not C++. If you wanted to suggest using an alternative language, you're probably better off recommending Zig: defer takes 0 lines to implement there, and it's closer to C than what C++ is.
Everyone reading this (you included) knows full well that unlike Zig/Rust/Odin/whatever, C++ has the special property that you can quite literally* write C code in it, AND you can implement whatever quality of life fixes you need with targeted usage of RAII+templates+macros (defer, bounds checked accesses, result types, whatever).
My comment is targeted towards the programmer who is excited about features like this - you can add an extra two characters to your filename and trivially implement those improvements (and more) yourself, without any alterations to your codebase or day to day programming style.
C in C++ is a pretty terrible experience. The differences your asterisk alludes to are actually quite significant in practice:
C++ doesn't let you implicitly cast from void* to other pointer types. This breaks the way you typically heap-allocate variables in C: instead of 'mytype *foo = malloc(sizeof(*foo))', you have to write 'mytype *foo = (mytype *)malloc(sizeof(*foo))'. This adds a non-trivial amount of friction to something you do every handful of lines.
String literals in C++ are 'const char *' instead of 'char *'. While this is more technically correct, it means you have to add casts to 'char *' all over the place. Plenty of C APIs are really not very ergonomic when string literals aren't 'char *'.
And the big one: C++ doesn't have C's struct literals. Lots of C APIs are super ergonomic if you call them like this:
You can't do that in C++. C++ has other features (such as its own, different kind of aggregate initialization with designated initializers, and the ability for temporaries to be treated as const references) which make C++ APIs nice to work with from C++, but C APIs based around the assumption that you'll be using struct literals aren't nice to use from C++.If you wanna use C, use C. C is a much better C than C++ is.
I'll give you the last bullet you missed, you're also giving up the { [3] = ..., [5] = ... } array initializer syntax.
I like both these syntax-es (syntacies? synticies?) and I hope they make their way to C++, but if we're honestly evaluating features -- take their utility, multiply it by 100 and in my book it's still losing out against either defer or slices/span types.
If you disagree with this, then your calculus for feature utility is completely different than mine. I suspect for most people that's not the case, and most of the time the reason to pick C over C++ is ideological, not because of these 2 pieces of syntax sugar.
"I like it" is a good enough reason to use something, my original comment is to the person who wants to use C but gets excited about features like this - I don't know how many of those people are aware of how trivially most of these things can be accomplished in C++.
I write way more C++ than I write C. I was not comparing C and C++ in terms of which language is better or has more significant features. I was evaluating your suggestion to write C in C++ and get defer that way.
> C in C++ is a pretty terrible experience
No I think, it the other way around, a fantastic experience; yes, you miss certain features of C, but instead you get massive benefits of C++ - above-mentioned defer, that'd work on any moderrn C++ compiler, constexpr's, a strategic use of STL while prototyping, templates etc.
> C++ doesn't let you implicitly cast from void* to other pointer types
It does, but that is not a good thing IMO anyway.
> Plenty of C APIs are really not very ergonomic when string literals aren't 'char '.
Examples? In my experience most C libraries have const char in their signatures whenever it makes sense.
> C is a much better C than C++ is.
Nonsense.